Marginal Literature: Hispano-Moro Conflict in Colonial Philippines

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HISPANO-MARAUDERS

CONFLICT IN COLONIAL PHILIPPINES

[Hostilities began when colonization started, as if the Crusades had never ended, despite it ceased some three centuries ago.

For an overview, let us study the events of the pasts, and the middle ages in old Europe.]

A Brief Overview of the Roman Empire before the Crusade:[1]

         

            In the year 180 AD, the Roman Empire had conquered most parts of Europe and North Africa. The Roman sphere of influence instituted through conquests extended from West to East. Starting from the West, it controlled Hispania: Tarraconiasis, Lusitania, and Baltica. Going to the North, it occupied Gaul [France]: Marzonne, Aquitania, and Lugdunensis; Belgica [Belgium]; partly Lower and Upper Germany: Noricum; Pannonia; Illyria [Albnia]; and across the today’s English Channel, Britania. To the South, all the islands in the Mediterranean below Italy-Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and Malta; and across the Mediterranean in North Africa, the areas of Numidia: Carthage, Hippo, and Utica; and Mauretania [Algeria-Morocco]. In the northeast, it controlled Alexandria in Eqypt; Libya; and Cyrenaica-Marmarica; Mid East [Asia Minor]: Palestine-Judea: Jerusalem; Syria-Antioch; Mesopotamia; Greek States: Macedonia, Athens, Achaia, Island of Crete, and Delphi; parts of the Balkans; present day Turkey: Troas, Ephesus, Peregamum; Armenia and as far as the Caspian Sea, were all Roman territories.[2]

Due to its vastness, the Roman Empire was divided into two, the East Roman Empire and the West. Rome was the center of the western empire while the east was in Byzantium. 

In the beginning of time, the Romans were polytheist unlike the Jews who are monotheist.[3]

After the small Christian community in Jerusalem flourished under Peter and the Apostles, the living witnesses of the Lord; and so with the many eye-witnesses who were still alive in Jerusalem of the activity, death, and the resurrection of Jesus Christ, Peter departed Jerusalem around year 43/44. Apostle James took his place and by tradition is regarded as the first bishop of Jerusalem.[4]

To proclaim the divinity of Christ and spread His teachings, the apostles preached to the farthest side of the known world. It is said that Apostle Thomas even reached India. But not only were the Apostles the instruments of evangelization, but as well as the community members who left Jerusalem, who maybe were even plain traders and not missionaries. Notable among those was Paul; he detached Christianity from Palestine and brought it into the center of Hellenism in Antioch.[5]

In the winter of 57/58 Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans [Rom 1, 8], thus, clearly Christianity had sprung in the Roman community already. So it discernible to say that in Roman towns, be it in Rome or in the occupied territories, Christianity continued creeping on, and many were converted.

The first great early persecution of Christian Romans happened when Nero was the Emperor in year 54-68.  Among those persecuted were Apostle Peter and Paul, Apostle of the Gentiles; and the Christians were blamed for the burning of the city of Rome, though the Emperor ordered its burning.[6]

Nero may have envisioned the modernization of the city, so he burned it intentionally to reconstruct it later.

At first, Christianity was looked upon as another Jewish cult, and not until in the year 100 to 250 when it was recognized as a religion. However, it was persecuted for being hostile to the sate and man, accordingly.

During the time of Emperor Trajan (98-117), the Roman Governor in Bithynia in the East Roman Empire in the year 112 asked Trajan for rules of conduct relative to the trials of Christians because he was not acquainted in the process. Thus, the persecution of Christians in Eastern part of the empire started at this time too. “According to the ordinance, simply to be a Christian was punishable; no further crimes need have been committed by the accused.”[7]

The implementation of the rescript or some sort of an order, which actually was not a law of the state, was left in the hands of the governors. There were Roman territories where Christian persecutions were less, despite the instigation of the fanatical mobs who demanded their heads. The successor of Trajan, Emperor Hadrian (117-138) forbade the Governor of Asia Minor named Fundamus to follow the desires of the mobs who wished for the necks of the Christians. But¸ persecutions still continued depending on the pleasures of the Emperors.  In 138-161 under Antoninus Pius, persecutions were numerous; it was either done singly or in groups.  Marcus Aurelius (161-180) did the same, and his reign marked the noticeable increase of hostility against the Christians. After his death, his successor Commodus (180-192) did the same.

From year 193 up the time before Constantine the Great became the Emperor of Rome, persecutions intensified more so when an imperial edict was issued on 23 February 303, ordering the destruction of all churches, confiscation and burning of Holy Scriptures, and restriction of Christian services.[8]

 From the time the persecution started wave back during Nero up to year 313, it was an era of imprisonment and martyrdom; popes (Pope Fabian  martyred by Emperor Decius in 250, and Pope Sixtus II in 258 by Emperor Valerian [253-260] ) bishops, priests, and theologians (Ignatius of Antioch; Justin, the philosophers, and 6 companions; Polycarp of Smyrna; Cyprian of Carthage; and Bishop Anthimus of Nicodemia with  his priests and deacons persecuted); laymen and ordinary members (in North Africa, Egyupt, and the Near East, marturs: Perpetuao and Felicitas of Carthage; Leonidas, the father of Theologian Origen) were persecuted for refusing to denounce their faith and worship the Roman state religion. Their deaths varied, it was either from torture, or they were made as objects of entertainment in the arenas against wild beasts as we knew it sadly.[9]

In 306 the Roman Legion in Britania [Great Britain today] proclaimed Constantine as Augustus.[10] From Gaul (France) Constantine’s Legion moved across the Alps, fought against the legions of Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge in Rome; and conquered the city on October 28, 312. His victory was attributed accordingly to him by the Gods of the Christians, whom he asked for help. In his dream, he saw a cross in the sky and the words “conquer in this sign.” Indeed, he was victorious.

After the defeat of Maxentius in Rome in 312, Constantine immediately drafted a rescript [an edict for that matter maybe] on a Program of Toleration so the Christians were given full equality with the religions in the empire. The rescripts were sent to the governors of the eastern provinces, and significantly it did stop the indiscriminate Christian persecutions.

From then on Emperor Constantine favored Christianity. He gave Christian clerics similar privileges with pagan priests on exemption from taxes. In 313 he gave Pope Miltiades the Lateral Palace and in 320 he founded the Church of St. Peter (today a Basilica) over the saint’s tomb in Vatican. By 330 Constantine re-founded Constantinople (present day Istanbul in Turkey); he transferred his residence from Rome to Constantinople, or the former Byzantine.[11] The Byzantium and the West under Constantine’s rule was unified despite some differences existed on dogmas and religious practices. There was an ensuing peace under Pax Romana.

The Pax Romana was designed to prepare Rome or the Empire to the way for universal monotheism since the latter had embraced numberless national gods and cults since the beginning of time.[12] Likewise, Constantine’s Byzantine pledged to protect the West; and similarly the East would be to Byzantine.

Constantine was the sole ruler in 324.[13]

In the meanwhile, heretical teachings and schisms developed as early as year 62/63. Early Christians had different ways of interpreting church teachings and they adopted varied philosophical thoughts they knew during those times. There were questions or confusions about the divinity of Christ {Judaistic schisms]; and it is a belief that Yahweh of the Old Testament was a wrathful God of evil, while Christ of the New Testament as the supreme God of good [Marcionism]; that Christians shall practice complete abstinence not only from meat and wine, but as well in marriage [Encratites]; that Christ was a mere man and only during baptism in Jordan River was filled with divine power, thus transformed into a God, and that the original God was only the Father, and Christ was an adopted God {Adoptianists]; necessity to explain the doctrine of the Trinity since it had no specific explanation, except in general terms, and the Trinitarian mystery has been ever a mystery to them; and an assertion that Logos (Christ) had an entirely different nature, neither eternal nor omnipotent, but created in time, imperfect, and able to suffer – that he could be regarded as superior to human beings, and therefore was a half-God not in itself divine (Arianism).[14]

Constantine knew that the Christian Church was not united as he had believed because of existing ecclesiastical problems. His desire was to make the Christian Church universal, which would serve as the foundation of his dream to create a universal empire.[15] In fact, the Roman Empire at this time extended from West to East even until the coasts of the Caspian Sea. Its vastness is so terrific.

To achieve his initial goals, the first imperial synod was called by Constantine in Nicaea from May 20 to July 25, 325, and attended by bishops from the eastern and western parts of the empire. The seven early Christian Churches were well represented in the synod and resolutions of theological issues were studied, which encompassed the Doctrine of the Trinity, Christology, and the Doctrine of Justification.[16] After due deliberation, the bishops decided that one teaching which Arius [Arianism] was heretical, though a few number also of those present in the synod sided with him. Arius was excommunicated, however, his teachings were found heretical; and the Emperor ordered his exile, so with his adherents.

            However, in year 337, despite Constantine had ordered the exile of Arius for his heretical teachings on Arianism, shortly before Constantine died, on his death bed he received Christian baptism, which an Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia administered at Witsuntide.[17] Maybe there was no more time for him to wait for other priest to administer the baptism, so Bishop Eusebius, an Arian made the baptism.

 Although, like his father, a monotheist [a pagan, a believer of Mithra, the Sun God], Constantine was more or less much inclined to Christianity; and his sons and daughters were brought up as Christians.

           

After his death, leadership of the empire was handed to new leaders, who like him were also believers of Christianity. In fact, in 380, an Imperial Edict was issued demanded all subjects to accept Christianity, “which the saintly Apostle Peter transmitted to the Romans and which Pope Damasus in Rome, and Bishop Alexander in Alexandria practice” Christianity, therefore, become the official religion and the church had become an imperial church.[18] The following year conversion to paganism was punishable.[19] The Roman Empire was Christianized because of Emperor Constantine.[20]

Meanwhile, the West Roman Empire or Rome had quite pressing internal and external problems in addition to the fact that it was conquered by the Visigoths in 410 under Alaric. In 452, the Italian Peninsula was invaded by the Huns under Attila, and had it not been for the intercession of Pope Leo the Great, Rome would have been sacked. Good that King Attila was persuaded by the Pope during a pleading talk at Mantua to withdraw his forces from Italy.[21]

After the Huns, the Vandals returning from their devastation campaigns in Spain crossed over North Africa, the Italian “granary”; and besieged Rome in 455. As he had done with the Huns two years earlier, again Pope Leo negotiated with Geiseric, the Vandals military leader. However, this time he was unsuccessful and only managed to request the conquering army to spare the lives of the civilians and prevent the total burning of the city. Rome fell and was sacked by them.[22]

The West Roman Empire was in the verge of disintegration. Indeed it collapsed. The West Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus was deposed when the Germanic warriors conquered Rome in 476. Prince Odoacer replaced Augustus and from then on, the western empire was dominated by the Germans. The Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy was established from 493 to 526; Odoacer was murdered by Theodoric the Great.[23] From then on, the Christian West was divided into different independent Christian Kingdoms.

The miserable situation of Rome was aggravated by the invasion of the Lombards from Scandinavia who were still pagans. They invaded Italy and founded up in the north a city named Pavia in 568. In 592-593 the Lombards besieged Rome; Pope Gregory the Great successfully negotiated with them; and the siege ended by the withdrawal of its forces from the city. The Pope not only was able to persuade the Lombards from ending the siege, but he as well had been able to convert the Lombards to Catholic Christianity later.  

In short, Rome suffered political difficulties, and such was further aggravated by the rivalry between the Romans and German kingdoms.

As can be recalled, the Council of Nicaea in 325 declared Arianism as heresy, and its proponents Arius and Patriarch Eusebius were exiled by Constantine, but the latter became the bishop of Constantinople. Sometime in year 341, Ulfilas was consecrated as Arian Bishop of the Christians among the Goths. So, Arianism spread among the Goths (Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Gepids, Rugians, Heruli, and Burgundians), because Ulfilas preached even long after Constantinople embraced again orthodox Catholic Christianity.[24]

The Ostrogothic tribe under Theodoric the Great desired to unite all the Germanic tribes under Arianism to found an Arian Germanic Empire up and against the Greek and Roman Catholics. However, such plan never came true due to the opposition of a Frankish king Clovis, who was undefeatable by Theodoric. King Clovis was converted to Catholicism by Bishop Remigius, which historical scholars believed to have happened in 498/499 at Tours. His subjects were mass converted too. King Clovis later on was regarded by the Roman-Gallic masses as the legitimate governor of the Imperium Romanum, thus he became the protector of the Roman Catholic residents of Gaul (France) and Germany under the Frankish rule.[25]

The Frankish Kingdom became so powerful that in 771 Charlemagne expanded his empire over almost in every part of Europe.[26]

After Charlemagne decisively defeated the Lombards and saved Rome, Pope Adrian bestowed upon him the title as Patricius Romanorum, and from then on the Defensio ecclesiae Romanae became the essential work of the Frankish kingdom for the protection of Rome, and the rest of the Western Empire. A pact of eternal friendship was duly sealed on an oath between Charlemagne of the Franks and Pope Adrian over the grave of St. Peter.[27]

Pope Adrian I papacy ended in 795, a new Pope Leo III (795-816) was chosen by the conclave.

Going back in time, at the other side of the empire, a great controversy on dogma existed in the East Roman Empire or Byzantium in 730 under the reign of Emperor Leo III. Such was about a line in the Nicene Creed, which up to now is still unresolved.

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The Crusades:

           

The disintegration of the once might West Roman Empire into different independent Christians kingdoms began; the East Roman Empire stayed solid unlike its counterpart the West.

After the death of Constantine[28] the Great in year 337, leadership of the Byzantium was passed from emperors to emperors, however the empire was not faring well. Not far from Constantinople, the Arabian Empire came to the limelight under the leadership of Caliph Omar [634-644], its founder. He was able to extend Islam to Damascus [present day Syria] in 635. He conquered Jerusalem in 637 and in between 640 and 644; occupied Persia – Sassanids. About in similar times, North Africa was a part of the Arabian Empire, including Egypt. The Omayyad Dynasty ruled the Arabian Empire from 661 to 750; their caliphs ruled the empire from Damascus.[29]

With the Arabian Empire surrounding the immediate vicinities of Byzantium, seemingly it was secluded from the Christian kingdoms in the West; and both kingdoms neither could send assistance to the other as they too were attending their own troubles and problems.

In the year 1071 AD, Jerusalem again was conquered, and this time by the Turks. Christian pilgrims continued to travel in the Holy Land to venerate the sacred places of worship and relics of saints; complained because of many restrictions imposed by the new rulers.[30]

This clamor from the pilgrims was just too little to attract the attention of the Byzantium Emperor; however, the empire was threatened of invasion by the Turks. Naturally, the Emperor had to ask for help; despite previously it had sought assistance from the West that sadly was unattended.

The threat of the invasion of Constantinople was imminent, too pressing, thus, it prompted Pope Urban II [succeeded Pope Leo IX who died in 1054 and now a saint] to appeal for help with the Latin Christendom in 1095 at the Synods in Piacenza and Clermont.[31] The desire to recapture the Holy Land from the Turks rang and burned like fire in every Christian heart; the Pope proclaimed the First Crusade on such assembly composed of French clergy and nobility. Pope Urban II was of French origin; undeniably he had greater influence over the clergies and nobles at the Synod of Clermont in France. Hence, in 1096 the Crusade started.[32]

With the battle cry “God wills It”, the Papacy was placed as the head of the movement because Emperor Henry IV and French King Philip I were excommunicated.  Despite, the Papacy was the prime mover of the movement, in reality; the Pope had no direct control over the military affairs in the field.

The crusade moved on, unenlightened bands of peasants formed the greater bulk of this disorganized army and they crossed the Rhineland, and marched through the Balkan Peninsula. On their way to Constantinople, the crusaders committed various forms of depredations – killings, lootings and rape of helpless inhabitants.[33] To stop the atrocities, local bishops made appeals because the victims were likewise Christians, but the disorganized army justified their actions by claiming that the victims were heretics. Heretics or not, the fact remains, many were killed, mostly Jews.

Before they reached Constantinople, the death tool from their ranks already registered high, many died during the march either from skirmishes with the local populace, or due to sickness and fatigue. But a considerable number of this army, if ever they could be considered as one; reached their destination Asia Minor. However, the Emperor refused them entry to the city. The menace and fearsome repute they established while still on the march made them unworthy guests to the city.

 If the First Crusade had established an ill-repute among the Christian inhabitants of the Byzantium, evidently, too, it had some inherent goodness, for Peter the Hermit of Amiens preached during the campaigns. His preaching not only added fervor and zeal to the crusading army, but it as well enlightened those who listened religiously.

In the first major battle, the Seljuk Turks annihilated the disorganized peasant army. While this was the fate of the inexperienced peasants’ army, the main crusading army composed of knights reached Constantinople from various routes. Under Norman Bohemond of Taretum and Robert of Flanders, their armies went by sea via Italy, while Godfrey of Bouillon and Raymond of Toulouse took the land route and the Adriatic Sea.

They reached Constantinople and, from there, they marched or sailed to Jerusalem. The Holy City was recaptured by the Crusades in 1099 in bitter and bloody battles with the Seljuk Turks who cracked later on. As a result of the First Crusade, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem was founded under the protectorate of the nobles.[34] Godfrey of Bouillon was the first “Protector of the Holy Sepulcher”. In the same year, he defeated the Egyptian Sultan at Askalon. The First Crusade ended in 1099.

Baldwin I (1100-1118) succeeded his brother Godfrey; he took the title as the Christian King of Jerusalem. Its territories had been extended by Fulco of Anjou [1131-1143].[35] Nonetheless, the war for control of the Holy Land did not end; there were five more crusades as the years went on.

The Second Crusade was in 1147-1149 or merely six years after Fulco’s rule. It ended disastrously in 1187 when the joint French and German army was defeated during the numerous battles with the Turks. Jerusalem was again retaken by the Muslims in 1187. Defeated by not losing the will to fight, the German armies under Frederick Barbarossa arouse and continued the third crusade in 1189-1192 to regain Jerusalem. Though he won the battle at Ibonium over the Turks, he however died of drowning. So, King Richard the Lionheart of England and Philipp II of France carried on the war; nevertheless, they were unable to retake Jerusalem, which Sultan Saladin strongly defended. After several encounters and always on deadlock, a truce was concluded. Conditions were set and it guaranteed safe passage of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land; both Christians and Muslims regard Jerusalem as a holy place.

Sultan Salah ad-din’s (Saladin) became legendary among his adversaries, his magnanimity could not be forgotten by them, when he allowed the captive nobles to leave Jerusalem unscathed in exchange however of considerable ransom. Usually the language of war employs all kinds of brutalities beyond description like execution, rape, plunder, and enslavement. These however was not done by Saladin, instead he set the nobles free in consideration of great ransom.

Peace ensued, Christian pilgrims traveling around Jerusalem and its vicinities were unharmed, but the ember of crusading spirit ignited, out maybe of pride of taking back what they Christians had before. In 1248-1254 King Louis IV of France spearheaded the Crusaders and planned to recapture Jerusalem by taking Egypt first. Unfortunately, his army was completed decimated in April 1250 not far form Cairo, the Egyptian capital. He, too, was taken prisoner.

The call to arms for a Crusade was aimed to stop Islamic expansions into Byzantine by the Pope firstly; it was more on the religious respect, and discounting the political reasons.[36] For a time, Constantinople had been stormed by its enemies; and finally in 1453, the Ottoman Turks under Mahmoud the Great conquered and sacked the Byzantium Empire of the East. From then on, Christians and Muslims learned to live side by side in conquered territories. Nevertheless, in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, the European powers started colonizing key parts of the Ottoman Empire, and such were viewed by them as intrusions and suppressions of Islam.

In the Philippines, the Hispano-Moro conflict occurred much later, many centuries after the Crusade ended. As if these nations [Moro and Hispanic] inherited the war, and rightly they were long at war for centuries ago in the Iberian Peninsula because Spain was colonized by the Berber Moors of Morocco in 719 AD.  The Moors ruled most parts of Spain for seven centuries. In fact, it was annexed to North Africa as a province under the Caliphate of Damascus, now Syria. However, small independent Christian kingdoms in the northern part of Spain like Astoria vehemently resisted Moorish rule. With demonstrated courage and patriotism shown by Astoria, Spain thereafter was able to unify all its Christian principalities, and in 1492 King Ferdinand II [later Emperor Charles V] drove the Moors out from their country, taking their last stronghold in Granada. .

Two centuries later, an edict of expulsion was issued by the Viceroy of Caracena on 22 September 1609 against the thrifty Valencian Moriscos (Valencia, Spain), the descendants of the old Moors; and it says:

With the exception of six of the oldest and most Christian Moriscos in each village of a hundred souls, who were to remain and teach their successors their modes of cultivation, every man and woman of them were to be shipped within three days for Barbary on pain of death, carrying with them only such portable property as they themselves could bear.[37]

For a period of six months, about one hundred fifty thousand Moriscos were expelled or driven from Aragon, Murcia, Catalonia, Andalucia, and from other places in Spain. This much had been driven out; nevertheless, Moorish influence has been tangibly noticeable on Spanish arts, literature and architecture nowadays [not that Spain is all Moorish, but a bit of it, is.]

In colonial Philippines, Hispano-Moro conflict could neither be viewed in a perspective relatively similar with those happening in Spain nor during the Crusade. It was a war for survival against piracy and the lucrative slave trade that was prevalent during those times.[38]

           

Nonetheless, we do not wish to point fingers that started it.[39]

Early Recorded Conflicts in the Philippines:[40]

         

In 1570, King Philip II out of tolerance decreed that only Muslim who attacked Spaniards or Indios shall be enslaved if captured during the war. Indios or Pagans converted to Islam should however not be enslaved, but should be persuaded to accept the Christian Faith.

After Legaspi’s demise, Francisco de Sande succeeded him; he organized an invasion force against the Muslims of Borneo and Sulu. The raids were successful; however it failed to colonize Maguindanao – Cotabato. It provoked the Muslims, and being century old enemies not much maybe in religion, but in economy – trade, conquest, etc., the inevitable followed.

            In 1585, a former Inquisitor of Mexico named Melchor de Avalos was assigned at Royal Audiencia[41] in Manila. He filed a written report to the King of Spain detailing his denunciation against the Muslims. The reports were made in two separate instances with strong position of his denunciation based on his experiences as Inquisitor for twelve years. Despite the inherent restrictions of the Patronata Real, he insisted the Spanish King was not subject to any Papal Censure, if he waged war with the Muslims “to punish their idolatrous customs”.

            While he instigated his views to the Crown yet, for the King to decree and send it out to his dominions in the world to convert those infidels to the Christian Faith, unexpectedly the Muslims had started their raids against Christian villages along the coast. The Inquisitor’s position was justified consistently with the acts of intrusion made by the Muslims.

           

So, the colonial government in 1596 attempted to destroy the Maguindanaos of Cotabato; an expedition under Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa[42] was sent; however, it failed. Casualties on either side was high, the Spanish Army lost their Expedition Chaplain, Fr. Juan del Campo, S.J. who died of extreme exhaustion during the march and offensive.[43] Cotabato was never conquered, the Maguindanaos proved themselves as unconquerable.

            Despite, we knew from the early start that the war in Asia Minor in 1096 was to impede the expansion of Islam, and therefore not political or economic in accordance with the perspective of the Papacy. However, colonizers may have seen it differently and opportunely viewed it in the points of economics. Thus, the conflict was not only religious, but ultimately for economic reasons. The coastal towns or villages of Christians along the Eastern [Caraga] and Northern areas of Mindanao (Misamis district including Iligan and Dapitan), the Visayan Islands and Southern Luzon were prosperous.

             Aside from the booty the raiders had from the plundered helpless communities - their valuables; captives, who were sold later in the slave markets of Cotabato, Sulu and Batavia [Indonesia], it deprived the colonial government of the needed revenues as well. The depopulation of the coastal communities affected much the collection of tributes from the tribute payers, thus the Royal Treasury’s collection decreased.[44]

Nevertheless, history tells us that the slave trade was not inherently endemic practice by Muslims alone, and neither it was new to the Christians in the Iberian Peninsula nor in the Muslim world. There was an ever demand of slaves for manpower in the sugar plantation of Spain and Portugal in the New World. Likewise, the Muslim Ottoman Empire needed slaves for military purposes. Sadly, therefore, in the middle of the 15^th century, a new kind of trade began – the sub-Saharan African Slave era.[45]

 In 1493, Portugal led the African Slave trade. It is believed that over a period of four-hundred-year of trade, and based from an inaccurate estimate as it is hard to determine; about 12 million Africans slaves were transported to the Americas by the Europeans. Approximately, 1 to 2 million died during the Atlantic crossing, while possibly over another 12 million died during the long march from the sub-Saharan African desert before reaching the holding areas on the coast like in Sierra Leone. The slave trade was one of the inhumane tragedies in history.[46]

From the accounts of Antonio Morga, Sucessos de las Islas Filipinas, it says, in 1602, Portugal prepared an expedition from Goa in Western India to invade and re-conquer Terrenate in the Moluccan Islands from the Moro Terrenatans, who revolted against the Portuguese, with the Dutch as their ally. Previously, Portugal dominated the profitable spice trade in the Moluccas, the Dutch now controlled the trade.

So, General Andrea Furtado de Mendoza[47] sailed from Goa with six ships, fourteen galleys and fustas, and 1,500 men to invade Terrenate. Cruising for days in Indian Ocean and entering the Straits of Malacca and finally coasting in the Seas of Celebes, they met a storm. The fleets were scattered. Bigger ships reached the safety of Amboina, a Portuguese colony. But most of the galleys and fustas returned to Goa, being unable to catch the bigger ships and too fearful of the churning seas. Furtado de Mendoza stayed six months in Amboina, waited for reinforcement from Malacca that did not arrive With the troops he had, Amboina’s revolt was pacified; probably again instigated or manipulated by the Dutch.

Since the needed reinforcement from Malacca did not come, provisions ran low, so with ammunition and manpower. He sent envoys to Manila to ask for assistance from the Governor General.[48] The envoys were Fr. Andre Pereira and Captain Antonio Fogota, who boarded a fast frigate to explain Furtado Mendoza’s appeal to the Governor General Pedro de Acuña. The Portuguese urgently need the reinforcements and supplies to arrive in January 1603.

In consultation with the Royal Audiencia, they granted Furtado’s appeal. How could de Acuña refuse him in the first place, he did not want to shoulder the blame if the campaign would end up in disaster. De Acuna was long desirous to invade Terrenate by himself, he had this obsession before he assumed the proprietary Governorship, but since Furtado had moved earlier, he gave the latter a head start, for it would be quite good too if he succeeds.

Three big frigates and a galleon Sta. Potenciana were commissioned for the invasion; it was sufficiently provisioned with fanegas of rice, salted beef, preserve sardines, palm wine, medicines, and most importantly ammunition. Captain and Sargento Mayor Xuarez Gallinato took command of the expedition with a token force of one hundred fifty well-armed men. Governor General de Acuna’s explicit order was for the Expedition Commander to take order from Furtado de Mendoza. They sailed and met Furtado’s forces at the rallying point in the Port of Talangame. The combined forces landed, established the beachhead, and proceeded towards to the narrower areas and along gullies. It took two days to reach the fort because they dragged their six pieces of heavy artilleries. These artillery pieces were mounted towards the direction of the main fort, the defenders began the onslaught by firing their cannons when the invading force was at range, and their offense was slowed.

Fort defenders initiated an assault against the Spaniards who were stationed near the gate. The Ternatans went out and attacked them with daringness, unmindful of the volleys fired against them. Nevertheless, they experienced fear as wave of fallen bodies slumped on the ground sightless. Retreat was inevitable, though maybe it was not ordered; they hurriedly withdrew to the fort, shutting its gate and leaving behind their wounded buddies, not much for the dead.  

 Superiority in numbers always count, the defenders had heavy firepower; and their well-depended position was an edge over their adversaries, In fact, Portuguese and Spanish artilleries were no match in accuracy with the Moro Ternatans’ because they were mounted in better positions in addition to their inexhaustible ammunitions, while their ammunition  were dwindling.

Having asked the opinions of the unit commanders, Furtado decided to order the retreat, otherwise their safety would be jeopardized by the accurate and effective firepower of the Terrenatans from the fort. Retreating to the shore, embarking the men, artillery pieces, ammunition and supplies to their boats, they sailed to where they previously converged at Talangame, before they proceeded to Amboina. From there, Gallinato started the return voyage to Manila. In another ship was Roy de Sequeira, the Chief of the Fort at Tidore. With his family and merchandise, they fled Tidore and arrived at Manila in July 1603. Furtado’s campaign failed.

Furtado’s letter was delivered by Roy Gonzales to the Spanish Governor General in Manila; expressing greatly the former’s sincere gratitude of his support to them. He tried to explain the details, perhaps an excuse of some sort; however, he had not forgotten to commend the bravery of Gallinato and his men. Captain Villagra and one named Don Luys were especially commended.

The letter was written in Terrenate dated March 25, 1603. The invasion was a great loss of lives and so with the Royal Treasury; however, it did not extinguish the desire of Governor General Pedro de Acuna’s dream of conquering Terrenate.

Hispano or Marauder's Intrusion:

            History may have recorded early incidents, but who made the first incursion, is the hardest part to tell, who did first. After all, what if the one recorded in chronicles was the effect of retaliation? Let us leave this question, and go on.

           

We know that Captain and Sargento Mayor Xuarez de Gallinato commanded the token force of Spanish soldiers who invaded Terrenate with the Portuguese, because he was an able commander, who just finished his Joloan campaigns at the time Furtado’s envoys reached Manila. Gallinato was already in the Pintados[49] taking probably the RNR status [rests and recreation] after ending occupying shortly the island. The tiring campaigns had greatly worn out his men, many were sick, with which he failed to execute the Governor General’s order to attack Cotabato to punish the Maguindanaos. He broke camp, destroyed the fortifications, which they constructed and left when the reinforcement arrived.

            Gallinato was in Panay at the town of Arevalo. Governor de Acuña went to Panay and in his absence, he appointed Licentiate Don Antonio de Ribera, Auditor of the Royal Audiencia to take charge of state affairs, while he was out to talk with Gallinato to know completely the accounts of the Joloan campaign.

            Manila was in heightened alert, twenty big Moro caracaos entered the coast of Luzon, and a ship from Cebu bound for Manila was captured in high seas. Ten Spaniards were taken hostages including a lovely Spanish woman, a Priest and Captain Martin de Mandia. The Marauder successfully raided Calilaya in the present day areas of Quezon Province, burned the church and the whole town, looted the townspeople valuables, and captured many native inhabitants.

           

            Supposedly, Balayan would have been raided next; nevertheless, the raiders had some second thoughts because the town was prepared, the people did not wish to experience what Calilaya had. Instead of going there, the Moros sailed to Mindoro and raided the prebendary of Curral. Caught unaware, many inhabitants were taken prisoners, and the place was stripped of its valuables – gold, and so on.

            Captain Martin de Mandia, one of the hostages; tried to negotiate with their abductors. In exchange of their freedom, ransom was fixed and he promised to bring the blood money within six months time at the big river of Cotabato. Since they had no money for the ransom at the moment, he suggested that his captors should release him so he can negotiate with the families of prisoners in order to raise the ransom. Their captors consented; he was set free, went to Manila, and informed Auditor Ribera.

            Due to no ransom policy, funds were never raised and instead Auditor Ribera dispatched a pursuing party under Captain Gaspar Perez from the port of Balayan. The raiders however had left  for Mindanao some six days ago, after spending leisurely in Mindoro, as if it were their own homelands.

            It is not known, if ransom was paid actually, or whether the other hostages were released. But later accounts of Morga said, a naval skirmish ensued later somewhere off the coast of Mindoro between Captain Perez and twelve Moro caracaos. Two caracaos were captured, some were sunk, however the rest of the marauding fleet managed to escape because of their swiftness and maneuverability.

The Terrenatan Campaign:

            In June 1605, two dispatches [Spanish galleons] from Nueva Espana arrived Manila bringing in supplies, ammunition and regular soldiers from Spain and Nueva Espana [Mexico]. Pedro de Acuna’s passion to invade Terrenate was awakened; he decided to invade Terrenate, the capital of Moluccas. The Dutch had now established a greater influence over the Moros. Amboina was invaded and all the Portuguese were driven out. Unopposed in the Moluccan Islands, they occupied the island of Tidore also and successfully established a trading post in Terrenate. They dominated the clove trade of Moluccas, supplying the markets of Europe with it abundantly, and gained enormous profits from the monopoly.

            In continental Europe, Spain and England were long at war; the Dutch sided with the English, and the Portuguese with Spain. The war was absolutely political and for economic reasons. Obviously, their rivalries were for discoveries, dominions and trade, while on one hand, it was a bit of religion since Spain and Portugal are Roman Catholics, and England a Protestant.

           

On the onset of 1606, Governor General Pedro de Acuna organized his invasion force; by March 15, 1606, he had five galleons, four galleys, three galliots, four champans, three funeas, two brigantines, one barca chata for the artillery, and thirteen frigates. They had sufficient ammunition, and provisions to last approximately for nine months for the 1,300 Spanish regulars, 400 Indio volunteers composed of Tagalogs and Pampangos. Portuguese veterans, the remnants of the Battle of Tidore arrived in Manila from Malacca to join the campaign, with their own officers or captains.[50]

            Near the town of Arevalo[51] in Panay Island at Punta Hilohilo, the expedition left for Mindanao, and at a port called La Caldera in Zamboanga, they anchored to replenish their water supply. De Acuna boarded the galley “Santiago” and took command of all the galleys and oared boats. Having sufficient water supply, they prepared to leave; and “Jesus Maria”, the flagship of all the other vessels commanded by Master-of-Camp Joan de Esquival with Captain and Sargento Mayor Cristoval de Azcueta Macheco; when it tried to leave port was aground. Being so heavy, it could not be towed, so they inevitably decided to abandon it, salvaging everything on board, including bolts and nails so, the Moros would not get anything. Thereafter, it was deliberately torched and to rest forever in the shallow shoals.

            While the galleons and other ocean going vessels sailed without hesitation across the open seas, the galleys sailed hopping along the islands and coastlines of Mindanao before side-crossing partly to the Celebes Seas for Moluccas. They were heading to Port Talangame with feelings of apprehensions, unsure of what their fates would be in the battles, yet to come. Reaching Terrenate, the first fleet of Master-of-Camp Esquivel reconnoitered the area. A heavy Dutch ship was anchored near the port, and they had seen the intruders, their cannons fired towards the Spaniards. Since it was not time yet to engage, the Spanish fleet sailed off and went to the Island of Tidore.
       

  The nobles of Tidore, probably demoralized or unprepared to engage on war, warmly welcome the Spaniards. But the King was not there to welcome them, he was in the nearby of Bachan because it was his wedding.

            In the meanwhile, the second fleet of galleys and the galley Santiago, where the Governor General boarded had gone off-course due to navigation errors. They had sailed to the farthest seas of Celebes, so they corrected their bearings and went back passing the port of Talangame. Similarly, they saw the heavy Dutch ship, and the First Fleet under Master-of-Camp Esquivel was not there; they sailed to Tidore. Their guess was right, the Spanish fleet was there.

            The King of Tidore arrived in twelve caracaos from Bachan and sensing big trouble to come, he yielded peacefully to the Spaniards. Having known the purpose of Governor Acuna, the former offered six hundred of his men to augment the Spanish army; despite they had an existing treaty, probably a non-aggression one; with the Dutch, after all they neither liked dealing business with Terrenate under Sultan Zayde nor with the Dutch. Sultan Zayde was too harsh to them and favored always the Dutch. A formal alliance was formed; the Spanish-Portuguese army with the King of Tidore and men sailed for Terrenate on 31 March 1606.

           

As a tactical maneuver, all invading vessels would have to be anchored between the Port of Talangame, and the settlement of Terrenate. But when they arrived, the heavy Dutch ship was no longer there; it left the previous evening for Amboina. Early dawn of the following day [April 1, 1606], men, artillery, ammunition, and other supplies were landed with difficulty, roads were too narrow. Despite, there was no corps of engineers, combat soldiers built road for better mobility to rapidly deploy troops during the attack of the stronghold.

            In his second season of Moluccan campaigns, Captain and Sargento Mayor Juan Xuarez Gallinato commanded the main front assault groups. With him, were Officers Captains Juan de Cuevas, Rodrigo de Mendoza, Pascual de Alarcon, Juan de Cervantes, Vergara and Cristoval de Villagra. The rearguard was commanded by Captain Delgado. Master-of-Camp Esquivel commanded all the operating companies. Governor General Acuña after camping for a while near the enemy wall before the battle began; returned to the ship to supervise the dispatching of other artillery pieces and supplies. [It is never unusual in battles for generals to be away from enemy lines; they are the “think-tanks.”]

            Shelling began hitting the invaders’ line of defense; their cannons were at effective range. This Terrenatan Fort was previously occupied by the Portuguese, and now the Moro Terrenatans had it. The fort was called by the Portuguese as Fort Nuestra Senora; and momentarily a great number of Terrenatan were inside, and strongly defended it. Like other forts, Nuestra Senora was well protected by stone walls, which extended up to the side of a nearby mountain slope. Strategically, artillery pieces were mounted on certain points; and at the end of the wall, a fortress called Cachiltulo stood impregnable.

Fighting went on with the use of muskets, arquebuses, culverins, pikes and other weapons, and as time dragged on, there were six early casualties from the Spaniards due to direct cannon blasts. Alferez Juan de Rambla was wounded on the knee.

            The Spaniards found one vulnerable area leading to the fortress Cachiltulo; with twenty-five hand picked and fearless riflemen under Captain Juan de Cuevas, they advanced cautiously; nevertheless, their enemies were like them, brave and smart in battles, they counter-attacked too, to repulse them from getting through. Spanish reinforcement supported the attack groups, the Moros retreated to the safety of Cachiltulo. But the offensive maneuver was pressed on; they moved inch by inch, pressed the assault, and little by little the Terrenatans’ defense lines broke. The Spanish Army had gone beyond the side of the stone walls, and unstoppable, heading farther towards the bastion.

            However, the main fortress had deep trench serving as obstacles and exposing one to volley of fires, thus the offensive was halted momentarily. Having no options left, but to press the attack – to do it for once, die or win, no matter what, the Spaniards attacked. The Ternatan defenders stood firm, volley after volleys of fire were exchanged and many were either dead or wounded.

           

But sensing imminent defeat, most defenders fled to the nearby mountains. A Dutch artilleryman abandoned his big shivel-gun and had it been fired, it could have inflicted greater injuries against the invading men. But seemingly, he lost his will to fight a losing war, he was confused and far more than that – he was scared of death, so he fled like what the others did.

            At the end of day, the Spanish-Portuguese Army had 15 fatalities. One was Captain Juan de Cervantes, who felt from the fort’s wall being pushed by the enemies. Twenty men were wounded. The Moro Terrenatans fled to the mountains, many were killed during the pursuit, but some managed to escape on a caracaoo and four joangas, which were anchored near the fort. By 2:00 o’clock in the afternoon, the Spanish flag waved proudly in the smoky skies, marking the occupancy of Terrenate by Spain. What followed next; was the usual consequence of war, there was looting of valuables. They recovered clothes, linens and great quantity of cloves from the warehouses of the Dutch. Abandoned weapons - Dutch artillery pieces, including Portuguese’s cannons, which were captured in the previous war, were recovered.

The nobles submitted to the sovereignty of their victorious captors, Cachil Amuxa, the nephew of Sultan Zayde offered to negotiate for the surrender of the Terrenatan Sultan. As such, Captain-General de Acuña guaranteed their safety, if they surrender unconditionally; and after nine days, Amuxa presented Sultan Zayde, his son, and twenty-four cachils.  Of course, de Acuña treated them well as royalties, Zayde though as prisoner was lodged in the best available house. Furthermore, he was given the privilege to appoint two of his followers to govern the kingdom, on condition that the appointments shall be subject to the confirmation of Governor de Acuña. It was a humiliating situation, but Zayde had no choice, except to follow everything unconditionally since he was a prisoner in the strictest sense of the word, though he enjoyed the comforts of a royalty. Nothing could be done, he pledged servitude, loyalty and vassalage to his new master; and sternly warned never to trade anymore with the Dutch.

Following thereafter, Terrenate’s rehabilitation began, its defenses strengthen, and new forts were constructed in Tidore, Maluco and other nearby towns. Christian houses were restored, and Muslims desiring to become Christians were welcomed. The inhabitants enjoyed freedom, but with set restrictions.

Master of Camp Juan de Esquivel was appointed Governor of Maluco and de Acuña’s Assistant in Terrenate. In Tidore, a company of soldiers were stationed with Captain Alarcon, commanding. Stored with sufficient provisions and ammunition to last for a year, Governor de Acuña left behind the occupying forces in Terrenate. He sailed to Manila with Sultan Zayde, his son and 24 Cachils; they were his prized trophies. For how long would be his guests to stay in Manila, there had been no definite time, they had been taken to ensure the safety of Spanish governance in the Moluccas.[52]

The two aiding forces parted ways, in three galliots the Portuguese sailed to Malacca in the Malayan Peninsula, while the Spaniards headed to Manila. The Spanish fleet from the Terrenate expedition arrived on 31 May 1606 triumphantly, and welcomed them as heroes. Governor General Pedro de Acuna assumed his office. The Royal Audiencia managed the colony’s affair; it was too pressing to take it from the latter, administrative affairs were considerable important of him. However, he was not able to savor his fame, while he was in Cabit [Cavite] busily supervising the dispatch of two galleons for Mexico, he had a bad stomach. Returning to Manila for medication, his sickness persisted and despite of medical therapeutic advancement on those times, his sickness proved not that simple, for he died on the Feast of St. John in 1606. An autopsy report disclosed the underlying cause as a case poisoning.

The great General and Conqueror of the Spice Island was laid to his final resting place at the Monastery of St. Augustine in Manila.

Events from 1606 or After the Colonization of Terrenate[53]:

          The continuity of Moro-Hispano conflict even heighten, it did not stop contrary to what de Acuña may have thought that peace would ensue, since he had the Terrenatan King and the nobles in Manila, as an insurance of safety. The Philippines is certainly not Terrenate, so, Moro raids were pressed on, in so much intensity.

            From the translation of Blair and Robertson, written by various chroniclers and documents in archives in Spain, it says, and hereinafter presented in summary.

           

            Persistent raids were made by the Moros against coastal native Christian settlements, where some Spaniards lived too. These were mostly Jesuit’s mission areas and the grim realities of war happened such as the herding of captives to joangas; desecration and looting of church sacred ornaments, including the natives’ valuables; and burning of houses. By force of circumstance, the Indios had to fight in order to live; otherwise they would end up as commodities in the slave markets for life. In every resistance, many died but significantly it had shown that the Moro were after all not invincible; on several instances Moro boats were destroyed or sank in battles.

            One of the Moro fearless leaders regarded in those times as the Natural Lord of Mindanao; was Cachil Corralat [Cachil of the Mindanao River or Rio Grande Mindanao in Cotabato]. He had waged war against the Spaniards and with the other Moro clans in Cotabato. Obviously realizing, he could never win a war in two front, or against the Spaniards and the other clans, he decided to make a tactical alliance with the colonial government to perpetuate his power, because he was about to lose his long fought war against his neighbors. To signify his intention of making peace with the Spaniards, ambassadors were sent to Manila and they brought precious presents to the Governor General. Together with them, were Christian captives they had taken during their raids, and setting them free, was the best valid excuse in proving his sincerity and honesty to achieve peace.  

            Corralat consented that Spanish troops would stay at their place, probably he had pre-empted their presence could deter his enemies from attacking him. In fact, after the treaty was concluded, he sent his Captain to Cebu to ask for help. Indeed, he was in the verge of losing. An artillery piece was lent to him and accompanying it, were twelve Spanish artillerymen. Corralat’s men were taught on the science of artillery warfare, the twelve Spanish soldiers stayed in his kingdom for quite sometime. Nevertheless, the soldiers returned to Cebu in a great hurry, and left behind the artillery in the possession of Corralat.

            The artillery incident happened a year ago, and coincidentally a group of Maguindanaos visited Manila, and after staying there sometime [probably it was some sort of a state visit because at this time, the alliance between Corralat and the colonial government was not terminated yet], were returning home to Mindanao. Unknown to them, the Governor General[54] ordered Don Claudio de Verastigui, the Chief Commandant of Panay, who resided in the town of Arevalo, to recover the artillery from Corralat. The order was explicit; Verastigui shall not go home, unless he would have the artillery with him. A force of five hundred Spanish regulars and a contingent of native volunteers from Cebu have to be assembled for the expedition.[55]

            The Maguindanaos sailed homeward and reached the port of Oton in Panay, their ship securely moored, and it was at this inappropriate time when the Spanish soldiers demanded the return of the artillery, which certainly could not be returned by them because they do not have it with them, inasmuch as it was in Mindanao. For the satisfaction of the loss of the artillery, the Spaniards took away gold and valuables from the Maguindanaos; and captured them upon orders of an Alferez, who boarded the ship. But at the slightest opportunity the Moros resisted; commotion began and at first it was unnoticed by the unsuspecting guards at the port. Salin, a Moro Chief stabbed the Alferez and a soldier next to the Alferez fought against him in sword fight. However, the Moro’s campilan split-opened the Spaniard’s head in one accurate blow, thus instantaneous death occurred.  

           

            Incidents happened too fast in the boat, the Spanish soldiers on board were overpowered by the Maguindanaos. So, the moorings were slashed and they sailed away. Consequently, the soldiers in the garrison were alarmed and pursued them; there was a battle – arquebuses fired; nonetheless in close quarter battle - sword fight followed. Six Maguindanaos died, five more were wounded; and taken as prisoners.

            Apparently, the incident ended the peace accord, which had been established shortly. Moro raids intensified, done not only by the Moros of Cotabato - the Maguindanaos; but by the Joloans, Borneans and Camucones, to mention a few of them. The sight of Moro vintas and joangoas in the far horizons created fear among the Indios, as well as the few of Spanish settlers. They absolutely knew, it meant death, plunder, devastation, capture, and ultimately slavery in the Southern Mindanao – Cotabato, Jolo and even in Indonesia.

            To retrace some of these dismal incidents or events, let us go back in one early morning of October 1625, while Fray Miguel Garcia de Serrano, Archbishop of Manila was on visitorial tour to his district, about a hundred leguas away south of Manila in a place named Cabatogan. The Camucones attacked the pueblo, looted everything of value including the church’s sacred ornaments and the pontifical robes of the Bishop. Many inhabitants died because they resisted and a greater number than those who died, were taken as captives. It was too fortunate, the Archbishop with the assistance of another priest managed to escape to the mountains. Had the bishop not been able to escape immediately, he would have been beheaded, the usual way they treated Castilians including priests.

            From Cabatogan, the raiders left with bountiful loots and captives; and off the coast of Marinduque they attacked again a returning vessel to the latter island. Fr. Juan de las Missas, S.J. was returning home to Marinduque, after responding to the invitation of a Franciscan, to preach in the former’s mission. Unfortunately, he met the Camucones fresh from their successful raids; the first burst of the enemy’s lantaka hit him gravely. Excruciating from unbearable pain and still alive, the Camucones beheaded him.

            Through the guidance of a treacherous Chinese, probably one of those captured who just only wish to live; the Moros sailed the Visayan Seas and headed to Samar in a town called Catbalogan.[56] Early dawn, they attacked; plundered the settlers’ valuables and church, razed the town to the ground and those who escaped were fortunate including the Jesuit Father Rector, a Jesuit Priest, and a Brother Coadjutor. Captives were taken and those who were sick with smallpox, the pestilence that struck Catbalogan, were all mercilessly executed.

           

The sad fate of Catbalogan reached Cebu, two Spanish ships from Panay and Cebu sailed to intercept the raiders, but the pirates had long been gone and perhaps were already in their homelands, savoring their successes. Governor General Fernando de Silva dispatched an expedition of small ships to the homelands of the Camucones, who lived near Borneo; nevertheless, when the Spanish soldiers and native volunteers arrived, the Moros were no longer there. These people lived in boats, highly mobile, here today and gone tomorrow. Nothing was done, but in returning to Cebu, they passed Caraga and stayed for a while to pacify a native’s revolt.

Events Leading to the Joloan Campaign in 1627:

            Camarines was known in the colonial days as Nuevo Caceres. It was founded by Dr. Francisco de Sande in 1575. The name Nuevo Caceres was a namesake of Sande’s birthplace in Caceres.[57] Today, it is divided into two provinces [Camarines Norte and Sur]; however, the name Caceres still remains, for it is known in the present times ecclesiastically as the Diocese of Caceres.

            In those times, a shipyard was established in Camarines, commissioned to build couple of galleons, including three galleys and some brigantes to strengthen Spain’s sea power in the archipelago. Spaniards, Indios and Chinese were employed or deployed there for shipbuilding projects. It was a newly established shipyard, it had four artillery pieces; however they were not mounted strategically, for no one believed that an untoward event would happen this far away peninsula.

            Farther west of Mindanao, Jolo was a tributary of the colonial government, but such vassalage stopped because the Joloans rebelled.

           

A flotilla of thirty Joloan caracaos with two thousand men under the command of the King of Jolo sailed to the islands of Pintados, and out of good fortune, they captured a ship in high seas loaded with quantity of iron, cannon balls and fuses for the shipyard in Camarines. A few hundred nautical miles from the place, where they captured the former ship, another vessel was again captured, which carried sixty Indios and two Spaniards who were bound to cut lumber needed for ship construction. From their interpreters, the Joloans knew from interrogation of the captives that there was a shipyard in Camarines. They sailed to plunder the place. Again the usual way, they attacked at dawn.

            With the basic element of surprise in addition to the uselessness of the four artilleries, the shipyard was easily taken; and two Spanish regular soldiers died during the engagement. The remaining twelve soldiers resisted the invaders; despite it was a hopeless stand. What can they do against seven hundred raiders? Most of them were wounded; their powder and lead for the arquebuses ran out low, so they escaped at the back of the warehouse, and with them were their families [children and Spanish women]. They took a boat and paddled upriver, away from the Joloans.

            Large quantities of iron, artillery pieces and ammunition, rice and other valuables were taken away; and unable to carry the fanegas of rice for iron, they dumped it away into the seas.

From Camarines, the Joloans sailed west passing Cebu, and attacked the Island of Bantayan, located at the northwestern part between Negros and Cebu. Three Spaniards and a secular priests resisted the Moro raiders; nevertheless, they fled when their ammunition were exhausted. What hampered the Moros during the attack was not because the Spaniards and the priest resistance, but it had natural defenses – thorny vegetation grew abundantly in the island, and the Joloans being barefooted sustained puncture wounds. They used wooden sandals or bakya to traverse the vast field of thorns.

            Another village near Bantayan was attacked, Ogonuc, a missionary area of the Jesuits was too helpless; its inhabitants numbering to three hundred were taken prisoners. This enraged the Spanish Government in Cebu upon knowing the notoriety of Moro raids in Ogonuc. Cristobal de Lugo, the Commandant of Cebu prepared his fleet to confront the fleeing pirates. They sighted the Joloans, but the cover of darkness had freed them against the wrath of the pursuing fleet; and only eight small Joloan vessels were captured. Perhaps, those small vessels were the sacrificial pawns to let the main fleeing fleet escaped.

            Fr. Fabricio Sarzale, whom we knew beforehand in Butuan, was now assigned in Cebu; and he was commissioned by the authorities to ask the Governor General in Manila to grant them authority to launch an expedition against the Joloans in retribution of their depredations. The Governor General granted them authority, Fr. Sarzale returned to Cebu; and the towns of Oton and Cebu organized two squadrons of vessels. A fleet consisting about thirty to forty vessels was assembled, with an army of Two Hundred Spanish regulars and One Thousand Six Hundred Indio volunteers.

            Previously, in two different occasions, the attacks of Jolo failed because the Spaniards assaulted the strongest side of the fort located on top of a steep rocky hill. This time, they would not make another mistake, otherwise the expedition would end up in blunder and for the third time, they again shall experience another defeat. The expedition left on April 1, 1628, and reached Jolo on April 22 at early dawn on a Black Saturday. At one o’clock in the afternoon, half of the Spanish regulars disembarked to commence the infantry attack together with a great number of Indio volunteers. The reserved were left behind to guard the ships against the rear flanks.  

            To launch successfully the attack, it must be done quickly, but since a river had to be crossed first before the reaching the Joloan settlement, it was a dilemma of rapid troop deployment. With few small boats, majority of the troops had to ford the waist-deep waters. Thus, the fighting had been expected to be slow and bloody; perhaps the river would be crimsoned red in a few moments as soon as the full attack began, since the Moros would surely met them there. The fighting was indeed bloody, resistance was fierce, but finally the Moros retreated, the superiority in arms and numbers of the Spaniards had called the fighting off. The conquerors had the town; shortly thereafter there was an inferno of burning houses, which included the fishing village of the Lutaos, and the alcaiceria of the Chinese.[58]

             As a consequence of war, the victorious army looted the defeated town of all of its valuables. At the Sultan’s palace, silk, clothing, wax and other items of value were taken. They recovered three artillery pieces, large quantity of ammunition and powder, one hundred fifty muskets and arquebuses, and fanegas of rice. The mosques were burned, and the tombs of nobles were desecrated in search of pearls, gold, and precious stones. Looting therefore was the usual occurrence after conquest, the Spanish and Indios were capable of doing it, just as the Moros had done it to them. It was war time and it is one of the sad realities in any war.

            Furthermore, sixty joangas possibly those which were used in the raids against the Indio settlements were burned. Jolo was practically darkened by smoke, and the acrid smell of burning powder, sulfur and quantities of rice dominated the air.

            In the afternoon of Saturday, more Spanish fleet arrived from Arevalo[59] to join the final kill, but the days was called off, they returned to their ships; and merely were waiting of the orders from the Commanding General.

On the following day – Easter Sunday, the military operations continued without any regard whether it was a holy day or not. It was a day of commemoration of Christ’s triumph over death, His Resurrection, however in Jolo; it was a day of war. At a certain point near Jolo, a joanga was burned and three artillery pieces were recovered. Fr. Sarzale accompanied the campaign, he was always at the side of the Captain-General; carrying a banner on which the image of St. Francis Xavier, Patron of the Expedition; on their marched to the battlegrounds.

Generally, the long continuing conflict, which circumstantially involved the Indios being with the side of Spain because they were the masters or colonizers, had not stopped the Moro raids. Evidently, there were times when they experienced defeat, such as what happened in Jolo at this particular time, probably it was too a manifestation of a pay-back time, what the Moro had been doing to the Indios were done to them, as well. 

After more than a decade or in 1638, Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera[60] led an extensive military campaign against the Moros and won successfully such battles. He established military outposts or garrisons in strategic places to consolidate his victories.[61] Such victories were impacts of Moro naval defeats happening in similar year at Sibugay Bay in Zamboanga Peninsula, which Pedro de Almonte Verasteguio. Jolo once again was conquered in 1638.[62] It was during Corcuera’s time when the “moro-moro” or theatrical show started, depicting battles where usually the Christians ended up always as the victors.[63] 

 Moro raids on Indio settlements were silent for sometime; but it did not mean complete peace, since there were some raids although insignificant in magnitude than what had happened previously. The Moro Nation had been silent; nevertheless, their struggle to preserve their rich heritage and culture continued, at the midst of conquest, conquered or not, they alienated themselves from the faith of their conquerors and followed the faith of their ancestors in the line of sacred word, “Bismillah Ihrahman Irahim,”

They were indeed the unconquerables, despite of the conquest.

The Moro Raids:[64]

          The subsequent essay would give us a clearer picture of the incidents in Misamis District.

           

The intensity of Moro incursions heighten once more in the middle part of the 18^th century. In September 12, 1754, Jose Romo, Governor and Senior Magistrate of Cebu, Officer of the Visayan Fleet and Deputy Captain General of Cebu, and in those of Dapitan, Panay, Leyte, the Islands of Negros and Iligan, among others; and having been informed by the Minister of the town and Fort of Iligan, Fr. Jose Ducos, S.J., bestowed to a Bukidnon Datu named Lingaon Binuni of Cagayan de Misamis the rank of Field Marshal of the unbaptized inhabitants of the mountains, for aiding the garrison of Iligan during the battles against the Ilanos, Maranaos and Maguindanaos in the villages of Initao, Iponan, Balao and Anunay.[65]

            Evidently, the battlegrounds are familiar to the people of Misamis Oriental; Initao is a town in the western part of the province. It was a visita of Iligan under the Jesuits, because Mindanao was divided between the Recollects and by them. The imaginary division started at Punta Sulawan in the North down to Cape San Agustin in the South, with which Iligan being not situated within the areas of the Recollects whose base was in Cagayan de Misamis, naturally, was included under the charge of the Jesuits in Iligan.

            Iponan, as we all knew from the earlier pages, is a barangay of Cagayan de Oro today, located in the West. But for Balao, we wonder if it is the same being referred to as the present sitio of Iponan called Bulao, or the one at the Tagoloan Valley, a visita in the highlands of Bukidnon near Tankulan or today’s Manolo Fortich. Well, whether it is in Iponan or Bukidnon, it seems unimportant; they are all parts of the 2^nd District of Misamis.

[If in 1754 Datu Lingaon fought with the Spaniards for Iponan’s and Balao’s defense during the raids, would it follow that what Fr. Jose Montero y Vidal, S.J. had written, despite he had not specifically pinpointed the year when Gompot and the towns of Camiguin were attacked, happened also in 1754? On the other hand, was Fr. Ruiz referring to the attack in 1749 distinctively from the one which happened in 1754? Apparently, the two attacks happened separately in 1749 and 1754, or the raids recurred during a decade in Misamis District, before the British occupied Manila in 1762, when Bishop Simon de Anda acted as the interim Governor General in the absence of a proprietary Governor who had not arrived yet.]

Barely a month after the commendation and honorary commissionship was bestowed on Datu Lingaon Binuni of the Bukidnon Tribe by Joseph Romo of Cebu, another appointment arrived from Governor, and Captain General Pedro de Arandia dated October 23, 1754. Datu Binuni appointment was officially sanctioned by the Governor General, and he shall receive P4.00 monthly pay from the Magistrate of Iligan, in recognition of his heroic services in the defense of the garrisons of Iligan.[66] These of course, include the battles in Iponan, and Balao, [probably in the Tagoloan River Valley in the highlands of Bukidnon.]

The order required all officers and soldiers of the Spanish Army to respect and obey Malesacampo Lingaon Binuni. Likewise, Spanish settlers and native inhabitants were to observe the same, for the good of the Royal Service in totality.

However, the intensity of Moro raids came to its height; the whole Moro Nation – the Taosogs (Joloans), Maguidanaos (Cotabato), Maranaos (Lanao), Borneans, Camucones, etc. concertedly deliver the death-defying blows against the helpless Indio settlements in the mission areas. Such fury and intensity was sustained a decade before the British occupied Manila, and even after they left the island. Was there an igniting force or an aggravating factor that instigated the Moros?

We would leave it for now, and have it soon, but momentarily; we would deal piece by piece the events that transpired not only in Mindanao and Visayas, but as well as those happening in Manila.

The Tandag Raid:[67]

            At the onset of westerly monsoon winds, the Moro raids began. Propelled by the direction of the wind, they hoisted the durable sails of their caracaos’ or joangas’, and double-deck boats’ towards Northern and Northeastern Mindanao, or to the islands of Visayas for buccaneering raids. The westerly winds drifted them well; otherwise the slaves under duress would labor much in the rowing.  

For the coastal settlements, the westerly winds or habagat, was a great woe, the pirates – the perils of the seas unnoticeably would come anytime. In July 1754, the Maguindanaos under Datu Dumango raided Tandag. Few Spanish regulars with equally brave Pampangos[68] manned the Spanish Fort, their only place of refuge. No one expected the raiders would come and sighting the Moro sails, everyone scampered for safety at the fort. It was jam packed, and what made it bad, there had been no enough provisions for the countless mouths.

The battle began; the raiders occupied the town and cordoned the fort, the dreaded siege began. So long as they would be in the fort, all would be well for a time, since they returned fires against their enemies – cannons against cannons, and volleys for volleys from muskets were fired. A young Lieutenant was the Fort Commander, he knew morale was low and if chances would permit, they would abandon the fort in trying. So, he ordered that no one will leave and the first one to disobey shall die earlier. Such was their predicament – starved, sick, and extremely afraid of their fate, yet to come.

After resisting for more than five months, the inevitable happened, on December 1, 1754, the Moro raiders carried out the final assault; Tandag Fort was overrun, and every defender died. The civilians fled to save their skins, but just the same they were taken captives afterwards and herded to their boats. A Recollect Missionary was one of the captives.

The Fort Commandant’s wife never witnessed how Tandag fell; the Spanish Lieutenant killed her with a knife, though how sad he was. He had to kill his own wife because he could not permit her to become a slave. Furiously, the Lieutenant fought; nevertheless, it was useless, he was an easy pick by his enemies, indeed a big fish among those who were killed.

Tandag was reduced to ashes, all its brave fort defenders were cold dead, town’s valuables plundered, and the native inhabitants baptized, or not were taken as captives. It took more than a month for Misamis District to know the sad fate of Tandag. On 13 Jauary 1755, Fr. Ducos, the Missionary Priest of Iligan received a word that Tandag had fallen.

The rehabilitation of Tandag fort was made; its defenses strengthened and reinforced to hold back subsequent attacks, because the enemies knew its vulnerability and, surely they would come again. Thereafter, a hundred Boholano warriors manned the fort, and rightly they did repulse every attack the Moros had carried out in the succeeding years.

The Lubungan Raid:

Before Tandag was totally razed to dust and ashes in December 1754, Lubungan [today’s municipality of Katipunan in Zamboanga del Norte], a small town not far from Diplog and Dapitan at the northwestern coast of Mindanao was likewise besieged.  

When the Moro raiders arrived at Tandag, and carried on the raid, a flotilla of thirty-six vessels and countless light boats invaded Lubungan on 9 July 1754. The Moro invaders sailed upriver for the poblacion, which was enclosed with stockade; nonetheless, the settlement had no fort or garrison for its defense, unlike Tandag. The defense shall be held bravely by its inhabitants squarely against the invaders.[69]

The raiders landed unopposed, spreading thinly in one line, and approximately there must have been two thousand Moro pirates, who marched cautiously into the poblacion. Digging trenches for defense, they noticed the settlement was too silent and no one met them to exchange or fire the first volley against them. Lubungan must have been unmindful of their presence, since there was no opposition, so they marched slowly again towards the pueblo’s main square.

Keeping their silence at the stockades fronting the advancing enemies, the inhabitants of Lubungan waited; and at a precise moment when the raiders were within the effective range of their guns, the lantakas and every available musket were fired in unison, repeating their salvos and volleys; and firing continuously at will. Heavy casualties registered on the raiders’ side; they had no cover and sitting ducks targets of the awesome firepower of the defenders.

Pulling back, the Moros regrouped, and began digging trenches and breastworks at the north side of the town. After completing the digging, guns were mounted tactically, the battle started again and continued throughout the night up to following day. Although it rained hard, the fighting never stopped, big guns roared in consistent cadence, while muskets crackled as they were fired at will from both camps. Their roars and smoke may have been noticeable, or alerted the nearby towns of Dapitan and Dipolog.

In the meanwhile, on the eastern part of the town the Moros dug trenches to block possible reinforcements from Dapitan and Dipolog; they had really mastered the art of war. The fighting continued furiously until the third day, despite ammunition and provisions were low, still they possessed nerves of steel, the fight went on though many died and much more were wounded among their ranks.

The trenches on the eastern would undeniably be completed, if the defenders do nothing to impede its construction. If completed, it would seal them, thus a decisive collective action must be done. With a Jesuit missionary priest standing up in this crucial time, they decided to attack the trenches on the east.

So, two groups composed of volunteers were organized, armed with spears, swords, arrows and few guns, they headed into two different directions. Undetected, they penetrated into the trenches, the killing fields of its builders since they were caught off-guarded. Obviously, the Moros never expected a counter-attack would come this far Many died, they abandoned the eastern trench; and solidified their forces in the north. They busily spent the night making two mobile gun turrets for the great offensive in the morning.

Indeed, early that morning, one gun turret was pushed and positioned towards the defenders’ fortification. The towering gun turret failed its purpose, for which it was made, one native sharpshooter patiently waited for the Moro gunner to expose himself; a bullet whizzed into the air and instantly killed him at the turret. Nobody from the invaders climbed or used the gun turret anymore. In principle, the towering turret could inflict the most damage to the Lubunganons, but the sharpshooters deterred them from using it.

Now, with much hesitation and indecisiveness, the great assault could not be executed, their enemies gallantly stood against them under the leadership and inspiration of their missionary priest. The defenders were equally brave, just like them, ready to fight and die, so the attack was deferred momentarily. Another kind of warfare was employed supposedly to intimidate and diminish their adversaries will to fight. With great noise – war songs chanted, with swords, spears, and muskets rose together during the chant; as if, the final assault would begin. On the other camp, the Lubunganons responded by ringing the church’s bells, beating of drums and waving of bandannas, aside from the prayers everyone had continuously said, since the day the Moros came.

Everyone thought, seemingly, the raiders just bid for time and would launch the attack of the besieged town. The noise intensified, certainly to drive inner fears, or perhaps it was a prelude to disaster; more so that twenty-eight improvised moving towers and all sorts of crude war machines were put to action.

Out of obscure sightings, unreliable reconnaissance and sketchy information reached the Moro Command Post. The scouts relayed to their commanders that reinforcement from the east would sooner arrive. Lubungan’s Siege was abandoned, despite the dreaded reinforcement from nearby Dapitan or Dipolog did not come; and it would never come, because only fifty men who were carrying relief goods came through the mountain passes, since the sea route was inaccessible, Moro boats were at sea. The relief goods – foodstuff came from Dapitan, the Jesuit Local Superior had sent them.

The Moro flotilla departed on July 16, 1754, some vessels headed southwest towards Zamboanga, and others sailed to the east and northeast. Presumably, those which sailed northeast either went to the Visayan Islands, or may have joined the siege of Tandag. We knew the siege dragged for over five months before the final onslaught ended everything.

From the saga of the Lubungan Siege, seemingly, few things could be grasped:  Firstly, no matter how small a town is, so long as its inhabitants are determined to fight, victory could never be remote; secondly, mission areas should ideally be established nearer to each other, for better chances of survival; and lastly, a priest’s influence or leadership at times of crisis can be relayed upon, when no one stood to lead., such as the tale of Lubungan.

But, why was the siege of Tandag, Lubungan and the attacks in some islands of Visayas, and the Misamis areas happened almost simultaneously and on such greatness? Could there be some deeper reasons why it was on such magnitude and intensity?

Raids in the Pintados and Other Places in the Archipelago:

Not only Tandag in the Caraga and Lubungan in the Zamboanga Peninsula tasted the wrath of Moro raids, but villages or pueblos like Gompot or Balingasag, Sipaca, Iponan, Alitutum and the villages of Camiguin Island under the Recolletos experienced similar fates, Fr. Jose Montero y Vidal had mentioned it in his writings.   

          The raids extended up to the vast expanse of the archipelago; the Visayas Islands under the Jesuits were likewise not excluded, in fact; in 1754 in several occasions particularly in March, June and July, the towns of Sogod and Maasin in Leyte were unceasingly attacked and plundered. Neighboring smaller towns like Hinundayan, Cabalcan, and Liloan experienced similarly, but not as often compared to what Sogod and Maasin had.

.

A vivid account in one of the raids showing how people can win a war through unity, perseverance, and of course; bravery, is a story of the Siege of Palompon, also in Leyte. Historian, Juan de la Concepcion[70] had written this account based from primary sources [from a Jesuit missionary priest of the Missions of Leyte].

It happened on 9 July 1745, twenty-five Moro boats anchored off-Palompon; the invaders numbering to more than a thousand warriors. Everyone in town, who were unable to flee to the mountains, took refuge at the church. Disembarking from their well decorated boats, the Moros entered the town. There was confusion among the inhabitants; it gave opportunity for the Moros to set fire on the convento. First thing first, they dug trenches and breastworks around the stone church; their cannons were mounted directly towards it. Exchanges of salvo and musket fires began, as houses and crops were burned, and the town was pillaged by the raiders. The church’s sacristy was on fire even if two bulwarks safeguarded the edifice, the lighted arrows had caused the fire, as there was no incendiary bomb during those times, except maybe if catapults were used to hurl projectiles or objects soaked heavily in tallow, or some liquid, which cannot be extinguished whenever lighted. Cannon fire exchanges continued for two days, seven residents were dead and ten more were wounded, nevertheless the defenders at the church never gave up.

The bombardment declined, the final assault was prepared on the third day, hence towers began to move nearer to the church, and men carrying ladders followed, too, so they can penetrate or get through the interior of the church. However, those ladders were warded off, such bravado resistance hampered the attack, and the defenders were worthy warriors like them, too.

Instead of delivery the final end of Palompon on the third day, the battle dragged further to the fourth day of attacks and counter-attacks. The fifth day marked the daring counter-attack of the Leytenos, giving all out what they had, anyway if they die, their miseries would be ended, too. 

The Moros were being out-fought, so they retreated and sailed away. Fifty of them died bravely in Palompon’s five-day battle. Palompon was fortunate to endure the siege; the stone church greatly helped them. Hence, it is for this reason, why churches in olden times were built of stone or bricks, and designed to withstand the tests of time such as in siege. Though it is a sacred place of worships, where even dead missionaries were buried at the church’s interior, it is likewise a place of safe refuge in any event, including those which are acts of nature.

Like the Calamianes Group of Islands[71] located north of Paragua, in today’s Philippines’ Last Frontier – Palawan, the island of Linacapan was attacked repeatedly because it was defenseless, unlike Culion which had a strong church. Moreover, the nearby island of Busanga was sacked ten times in a row, from June to August of 1754; it did not have a strong church like the one in Linacapan.  

Usually the coastal towns like those located in Northern Mindanao [Initao, Iponan, Gompot today’s Balingasag, Mis. Or. and Sipaca in Talisayan, and Camiguin, Butuan, Iligan and Linamon in today’s Lanao del Norte, and Ozamis, which are all parts of the second district of Misamis], and Eastern Mindanao [Tandag, Butuan, Siargao, Ticao and Calavite in the Caraga], or the Pintados Islands like Kalibo in Panay; Calamianes; Ilog and Banton in Negros; Palompon, Sogod, Maasin, Hilongos, Hinundayan, Cabalcan, and Liloan in Leyte; and Biliran near Leyte; suffered the most of depredations in the mid-part of the 18^th century [beginning 1745],

Moreover, Moro raids reached the Bicol areas in Albay; Odiongan in Romblon; Calapan in Mindoro; in Southern Luzon-Balayan, Batangas, Catanawan in Tayabas; and Masinloc in Zambales.

As if there was no place in colonial Philippines that was free from Moro attacks, Mariveles in today’s Bataan; was raided in 1757 by eleven small boats; and Aparri in Cagayan was raided in 1771, despite it is in the northern part of the archipelago, near Cape Bojeador areas in Batanes.  

The set of the colonial government in Manila was neither safe nor its suburbs; the pirates sailed within Manila Bay and captured twenty persons from Malate, one night. Paranaque and Tambobong experienced similar problems; they reported that Moro raid was a grave damage to shipping and persons.

In every successful Moro raid, depopulation occurred because the inhabitants were either died in defense of their settlement, or taken as captives. Unbaptized pagans living in the settlements returned to the confines of forest just to evade the raid.

The Pangil Bay Area and Iligan Mission:

         

Pangil Bay is just like any great body of water, but it is not a lake; and it divides Misamis Occidental and the Lanao provinces. It stretches ten miles in length and two miles in width, and going southward until it reaches the isthmus of a peninsula, Zamboanga.

           

Undeniably, in the colonial days, Pangil Bay was one of the sea routes usually used by Moro pirates coming either in Lanao or Cotabato through the Maranding River towards Christian and pagan settlements along in the coast of Northern and Northeastern Mindanao, and perhaps those which were conducted in the Visayas, Bicol or in Southern Luzon areas. The Joloans or Taosugs seldom or may have no accessed of this route considering that Jolo or the islands of Sulu are located farther southwest.

           

Before 1768 and in line with the division of Mindanao between the Jesuits and Recollects, Iligan Mission belonged to the Jesuits, being located outside the imaginary line – Punta Sulawan, which is near Initao in Cagayan de Misamis. Fr. Jose Ducos,[72] was the Jesuit Missionary In-charge of Iligan Mission at the height of the Moro Wars. A year before 1754, Iligan was besieged; however the presence of a fort with thirty Spanish soldiers and ten Pampangos, plus the bravery and cooperation of the townspeople under Fr. Ducos’s leadership, Iligan was not conquered.

            Although, all possible exit routes and sea lanes were blockaded and the siege dragged for two months, the defenders however managed to sneak out to ask for help in Cebu. In urgency of the situation, Joseph Romo, Senior Magistrate of Cebu dispatched one champan and nine native boats, with three hundred Boholano volunteers. However, when they reached Iligan, the siege ended; the raiders had withdrawn without inflicting any significant damage. The presence of the Spanish flotilla and ample troops ensured the safety of Iligan, with which the war can also be brought to the homelands of the Moros, deeper into the jungles of Lanao because Spanish and Boholono troops were already deployed.

            Nevertheless, the Spanish Fort of Iligan was vulnerable of attack; its defenses need strengthening, so, Don Felipe Carvallo, the Magistrate or Corregidor; appealed to Governor General Marquis de Obando, for its improvement. He said Iligan could be easily attacked; it can be accessed either by land or water by the enemies. It is unfortunately just north of the Malanao Lake and strategically, it is near Linamon, a few leaguas away from Pangil Bay, where authorities knew oftentimes the piracy emanated from those points.

            Fr. Ducos’ viewpoint about Iligan the importance of its defense was similar to Carvallo; thus, the priest made also a formal appeal, and further proposed for the construction of a fort at the mouth of Pangil Bay itself, in Misamis to suppress the Moro raids, which were carried to and fro there. However, for financial constraints, despite the idea were right and its necessity great, the fort was not constructed.

            What the people of Iligan feared most came true, it was under siege again, as such, Governor Obando took cognizance of Fr. Ducos letter, and a line says:

We are now under siege; the fort can last several months, but the town of Iligan is doomed unless our plight is taken seriously in Manila.

Henceforth, expeditions were dispatched for Iligan and similarly to Zamboana. Miguel Gomez Valdez[73] was the Expedition Commander, though his track record had been unsatisfactory. His fleet left Manila in January 1754 and arrived in Cebu; but the troops did not immediately proceed to Iligan because the boats needed refitting, and the materials had to be procured first. Aside from that the officers had to recruit for more local men and additional boats were needed to augment the expedition’s meager force. These were the causes of delays.

When the augmentation force was ready, as well as the galeras – San Phelipe, Santo Niño and Triunfo, and the native boats of the Boholanos, they sailed for Iligan in April 1754. The three galeras and the native boats were under the command of Pedro Alcantara Perez, while the Fleet or Expedition Commander Valdes did not go with the first batch that had a total force of two hundred Spanish Regulars, and five hundred local contingents, mostly from Bohol. An equal number of troops were still left in Cebu because Valdes was still there, and he had a considerable number of men and boats, in preparation of his departure for Iligan.

Pedro Alcantara Perez’s fleet anchored at Iligan Bay on 25 April 1754. Like before and fortunate enough, the Moro siege ended when reinforcement arrived. Everyone rejoiced at the sight of the mighty galeras and courageous men they carried, and at the thought that this force was merely an advance fleet. Nonetheless, their joys turned into disappointments because two months had passed but the Expedition Commander did not arrive yet. The galeras were idly anchored, so with the men, they spent the day leisurely; despite, some places of Northeastern Mindanao were raided unopposed, sadly as the case of Tandag.

Governor General Obando had seen Commander Valdes’s lapses as Expedition Commander, the fact he just stayed in Cebu, probably reluctant to fight, or was merely allured of the beauty of the place. The Governor sent letters to the military authorities in Cebu and Iligan, Jesuit Rector of Cebu, and Fr. Ducos of Iligan informing them that the campaign must be undertaken with or without Commander Valdes. A Council of War was immediately convened by Magistrate Carvallo.

The Council formulated war plans; defense strengthened, and not long thereafter when such was fully established, Valdes arrived on 2 June 1754. There was nothing he can do, but to agree the Council’s War Plan, since he was not present during the planning neither Iligan nor Pangil Bay areas were known to him, unlike the members of the council, who for a long time been residents of Iligan.

Early morning on 2 June 1754, the galeras Triunfo and Santo Nino under Pedro Alcantara Perez and Lazaro de Elizavera, respectively; with several Boholano in native boats, and a banca from Iligan, where Fr. Ducos boarded, sailed or patrolled to Linamon [first town going to Ozamis City]. Moro raiders had seen them first, so they sailed upriver and abandoned their caracaos, fleeing to the safety of the thick forest. As a result, thirty-five abandoned Moro boats were captured. In another river – Magoong, twenty more boats were captured, and there were no arm engagements because the Moros fled, simply for reasons of being out-numbered.

The rivers in Linamon were practically sealed by posting garrisons to deter its usage as staging and exit points of the pirates. Likewise, Liangan and Langatan Rivers were sealed off.

Fr. Ducos onboard the galeras sailed across Pangil Bay to reconnoiter Misamis and the nearby areas. Since all the rivers along Pangil Bay secured, Fr. Ducos decided to start the infantry operations. Under Pedro Cabiling of Iligan, commanding the Iligan contingents, a unified command composed of local contingents from Iligan and Bukidnon Manobos raided the village of Lupagan, a well fortified Moro stronghold located six kilometers inland. A battle ensued, majority of the defenders fled to Lake Lanao and its interior; ten Moro warriors were left behind dead. This arm confrontation happened on 24 June 1754.

In the meanwhile, a new Governor General replaced Obando; Captain General Pedro Manuel de Arandia took the affairs of government in July 1754. He knew well Colonel Ducos, the father of Fr. Jose Ducos, S.J. and knowing also the latter’s capabilities, and he commissioned him, as Captain General of the Fleet in Northern Mindanao. Fr. Jose Ducos, S.J. now a Captain General assumed command of the galeras San Phelipe under Lazaro de Elizaver and Triunfo with Nicolas Afriano, including all the native boats of Iligan and the Boholanos and its men. With the commissionship of Fr. Ducos, he had direct control of the council.

  

The Battles in Pangil Bay: 

            The consistent sealing off of the different Moro entry and exit points in Lanao and Pangil Bay had prevented piratical activities in the 2^nd District of Mindanao - Misamis. The galera Triunfo and several small boats guarded Pangil Bay and the big rivers of Lanao namely Linamon and Liangan, the waterways of pirates.  

            These were the battles in Pangil Bay and its vicinities:

a)      August 7, 1754, the battle happened during the night within the harbor of Misamis [Ozamis City]. Twenty Moro boats came to anchor under the silhouette of darkness. Gunboat Triunfo under Afriano, a small craft manned by Spaniards, and two sacayan of Boholanos were there. At 9:00 PM the battle began when the Spaniards closed in. It lasted for four hours.

In the morning, enemy corpses floated side by side with the remnants of the devastated boats. Of the twenty Moro boats, at least six managed to escape. A young Spanish Lieutenant, Juan de Echevarria commanded the small craft with a swivel gun-pedrero. It inflicted heavy damages on Moro boats.

b)      August 23, 1754, while Fr. Ducos and Fr. Paver were making map of Pangil Bay’s coastline, they received information that the Moros were at Layauan and Langaran. Triunfo with eight native boats were immediately sent; however in close quarter engagements, the big galera was ineffective for its non-maneuverability. The naval maneuvers and fighting were done efficiently by the native boats of the Boholanos and Iligan contingents.

It was a ferocious battle, three hundred enemies were killed, and several Christian warriors were wounded and killed. Among those wounded, was Fr. Ducos. The pedrero [gun] near him backfired from overheating. He was unconscious for several minutes, the right hand was badly injured, and it totally blinded his left eye. Thereafter, he was brought to Cebu for hospitalization.

c)      August 30, 1754, three pirate boats were sighted and they were chased. Two boats were captured, however one boat was empty, its occupants jumped overboard; and swamp ashore. The third boat escaped.

            On the same day, two other Moro boats were sighted returning from piratical expedition; a Spanish light craft and the Boholano boat went after them. The Moros headed for land and escaped leaving behind their twenty-one captives. The        Christian captives were from the Island of Capul near Samar; one of them was their village chieftain. Surely, they would have ended up at the slave markets had the patrol not intercepted them at Pangil Bay.

d)     September 5, 1754, a boat carrying Christian captives from Sorsogon was captured. On the following day - September 6, the Misamis contingent [Ozamis] battled with two Moro boats, all Moro warriors died in battle, except the twenty-three Christian captives, whom they rescued.

e)      September 9, 1754, the battle happened all night near the Misamis port. Twelve Moro boats were engaged with the Christians; three boats were captured, three Moro crew escaped by swimming; while the rest died bravely in a desperate battle with the Christian contingents.

f)       September 18-19, 1754, the battle was near Misamis again, the Boholanos from Malabohoc [Maribojoc] were the heroes of the day, they boarded one Moro boat; and were in man-to-man combat. Seven pirates fled ashore, however they were pursued and three were killed by spears. Over a hundred Moros were casualties.

g)      October 15, 1754, Afriano, the Commander of the gunboat Triunfo while patrolling upriver on a day’s journey going southward of Pangil, found thirty-one Moro boats at the banks of the river. Afriano’s men landed, pursued the Moros; and burned their boats after selecting the best ones.

h)      The military operations in Iligan, Pangil Bay, and Cagayan de Misamis under Fr. Jose Ducos, S.J., Captain-General of the Northern Mindanao Fleet, were oftentimes victorious, however battles cannot be won ever always, since there instances when their enemies were smarter, numerous and outfought them.

            One incident occurred at the closing days of October 1754, while Christian boats were headed towards Cagayan de Misamis, twenty-three enemy boats sighted them. The Christians were outnumbered, Moro boats were heading to them, and the battle began off the coast of Initao in Misamis Oriental. Many Christian were wounded, three had died already, and one boat was nearly sinking; however the Moros did not deliver the final blow to cripple or annihilate their outnumbered enemies.

             It was nice of them to sail away and head for Pangil Bay; perhaps they left the Initao Seas because they thought they had gone far enough, inside the jurisdiction of Cagayan de Misamis, where the District Governor had his office, and predominantly inhabited by Christians and regular Spanish Army were stationed. They had reasons to abandon the battle; the Christian settlements along the coast may flank them.

            So, they sailed back towards Pangil Area passing off the coast of Iligan, nevertheless the determined Christian boats at the scenes of battle pursued. Probably, they did it upon impulse, or to draw attention from Christian settlements along the coast to give chase, too, as what they had been exemplifying.  

            Whether the chase was due to mere impulse or superfluous courage, what happened next, at Pangil Bay; Afriano’s men reinforced the Christians; and another battle began. The tide of battle turned, the Moros were defeated, and three of their boats were captured.

i)        November 7, 1754, nineteen boats were found by Afriano’s men; they selected four boats and burned the rests. [Seemingly unfair, what if those boats were not used for piracy, but as fishing boats?] 

Sea battles are always fearsome; one can swim to safety when his boat has to be abandoned either because it is burning, incapable of sailing anymore, or in short, is sinking. One could mange to swim away from the scene of battles, and if he is lucky to elude his enemies during their salvage or mopping operations, he could swim further away until exhaustion. Hunger and burning thirsts have to be endured, and his hardship is aggravated by fear of predators, which may come and finish him. If one can endure exposure to extreme heat during the day, coldness of the night, and does not loss precious body’s heat or energy [hypothermia] occurring during prolonged soaking, probably one survives that is if he drifts earlier to the shore, and someone would be kind enough to rescue him.

            For sure, they knew these entirely well, nevertheless they decided to become what they are “navy or seaborne troops’, and have to do it, for who would do it for them, except they, themselves, who have the courage and entrusted their fates to time. Sooner or later, they know they would die either from a bullet or hack wounds, burns or drown from exhausting, and the worst thing, being taken as part of the food chain by the real perils of the sea. Death at sea is always inevitable; on whatever circumstance it would come, they do not specifically know. But these men loved being “soldiers of the sea”, by preference they welcome death at any circumstance than be item of commodities in the slave markets.

The infantry, too, is not a safer place in any battle. An infantryman has to endure long marches, pass rough and varied terrains, expose to extreme heat and rain, hunger and thirst, and sickness. But who cares, not even themselves are afraid of these, this is war, and war is sacrifice. That is the soldier’s way, laugh at a moment and be ready for everything, since death is imminent anytime.

In one of the Christian campaigns’ to bring the war to the heart of the Moroland, on 17 August 1754, the mixed contingent of Spaniards, Visayans, and the baptized and unbaptized Bukidnons, had been on a longer march to the village of Anonan, some four leguas[74] away from the Larapan River.[75]  Their enemies were no longer there when they reached the settlement; they had fled to the hinterlands or towards Lake Lanao. Nonetheless, it was best it happened that way, otherwise if they were engaged it would have been certainly bloody. What can a group of two hundred-twenty men could do much against a whole fortified village at their own territory?

The Spanish Fort in Misamis:

Today the Spanish Fort along Pangil Bay at Ozamis City is a shrine. In the olden times, it was named as the Fort of the Immaculate Concepcion and Triumph of the Cross.[76] Preserved, maintained, and beautified, it is a town’s heritage, a surviving witness of the past, and it draws people because of its valuable history.  

Knowing its story and the battles around the Pangil Bay areas, one can even reflect, and say how awful was yesterday, just as Mindanao had been in the 1970’s particularly the provinces of Lanao and the Cotabatos.[77]

We knew it was Fr. Ducos, who proposed in early 1754 of the fort’s construction, to seal off Pangil Bay and check Moro traffic around it, because the latter served as the entry as well as exit point of their piracies against Christian communities in Northern Mindanao, the Visayas, or probably as far as Luzon.  Previously, the colonial government in Manila disapproved the project inasmuch as it had less economic value in comparison with the cost of construction. But later, they realized people’s safety should not be compromised for reasons of economics, or spending much and taking none.

By 1756, government’s earlier points of arguments were no longer applicable; the construction was being viewed in military perspective, because piracies heighten. The Governor General obviously knew that when the Northern Fleet was assigned thereat, and patrols were conducted and engagements made from July-October 1754, piracies were deterred.  

Aptly, the construction began in 1756 with Fr. Ducos as the Over-all Charge, [he has recovered from his injuries] and under the direct supervision of Fr. Paver. It took many years to complete. Two galeras and twelve small boats were assigned at the fort, and Pedro Tamparong of Iligan and Ignacio Cabiling of Dapitan were the Fort’s Senior Officers.

On 2 July 1757, while the fort was undergoing construction, Fr. Ducos was recalled to Manila. He pronounced the Solemn Profession of the Society, though he was ordained priest ten years earlier, after he entered the Jesuits Novitiate on 8 January 1724.

Indeed, the assignment of the fleet plus the fort, Moro raids in the 2^nd District were deterred; Governor Arandia was benevolent on this, to the great disappointments of other districts like Caraga for they had none.

In 1759, Governor Arandia died, his demise was greatly mourned. The reign of governance of this Great Island [Filipinas] was taken charge by the Bishop Miguel Lino de Ezpeleta of the Diocese of Cebu, since the proprietary governor had not been appointed yet, or had not arrived to the Philippines. Bishop Ezpeleta responded to the appeal of Caraga and the Recollects, one galera was reassigned from Misamis District to Tandag.

Why the Moro Raids Heighten?

Jolo before 1749 was ruled by Sultan Ali Muddin, his brother Bantilan usurped the Sultanate. Ali Muddin fled, sought asylum in Manila, and the Spanish Government welcomed him much; and treated him with all the courtesies accorded to royalties that even festivities were celebrated in his honor.

The Dominicans cradled the deposed Sultan and taught him the Gospels they wished to bring in this side of the world. Conversion came at last; he was baptized with a Christian name of Ferdinand. To them, he was King Ferdinand I, though deposed and without a kingdom to rule at all.

A new Governor General arrived, having found Ali Muddin worthy of sympathy, and because Moro raid was gaining intensity, the Governor sent a large expedition to Mindanao, a retributive action against the depredations they had done, and to restore the deposed Sultan. The expedition failed, some ships were lost while those, which were engaged in battle were warded off by the accurate guns of Bantilan.

The fiasco was partly blamed to Ali Muddin, he was accused of duplicity - probably assumed to have divulged the plan to his brethrens so they can prepare. He returned to Manila as prisoner and locked at Fort Santiago in Intramuros.

Historians like Juan de la Concepcion and Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga, as they put it in their writings; seemingly Sultan Bantilan was prematurely responsible for enticing the whole Moro Nations like the Maguindanaos, Malanaos, Tobuc, Iranum, and Balangingi, aside from the Taosogs, whom he belonged, to raise simultaneously against the Spanish colonial government. They had reasons to believe it was likely on this point, because Bantilan had proven his prowess inasmuch as he had repulsed the Spanish Expedition to restore Ali Muddin to the sultanate. Hence, there would be no reason why they would fail, if only they concertedly deliver the death-defying storm against the colonial government. Sultan Bantilan had initiated the confederacy of the Moro Nations.

But, could this be the only simple reason, why in a certain period of time the whole Moro Nations were united, setting aside personal conflicts between tribes or clan wars [riedo] only to rock the Spanish Government? Would it be not that someone or someone had stood behind them, so, a war so ferocious shall be waged against the helpless Christians and native settlements almost simultaneously?

Scholars Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson in their writings from documents in the archives of the British Museum had attributed the century old plan to Draper[78]. And Fr. Bernad says in his bibliographical note in his Great Island:

“The Plan of Expedition for the Conquest of the Southern Philippines is in Blair and Robertson, Vol. 49, where it is attributed to Draper. As mentioned in the text, the original is in the British Museum “in Lord Anson’s hand.” Nicholas Cushner, S.J., informs me that the plan is believed to be Dalrymple’s.”

It says the former shall provide arms and arms, while Bantilan or his nation shall wage the war. Thus, probably, it was why the raids before the British occupied Manila in 1762 during the interim governorship of Bishop Antonio Rojo in the archipelago, Moro raids were so intense. It was probably designed purposely so Christian settlements would weaken, and sooner yield to another upcoming foreign domination, the fact that England had long been at war with Spain. Like Bishop Ezpeleta of Cebu, Rojo ruled the Philippines in the absence of a proprietary Governor and Captain-General.

Nevertheless, it seems unnecessary anymore to point the blame, for what good could it bring to us; and we would just only hate those who were responsible? What is right maybe is for us to know a little of what transpired deeply beyond in what we previously believed that the war was mainly to economic viewpoints like the field of slave manpower or markets in Southern Philippines, as far as Batavia, aside from branding it as purely religious war.  

The raids indeed depopulated the native settlements, in one attack in Romblon, 101 captives were taken in Odiongan, and thus only 70 were left, because they escaped. In nearby island of Banton, 67 were taken captives. Likewise in the Mindoro raids, using the Piloto River the Moros reached Bongabon, where 150 persons were taken away, there, and another 50 from Bulalacao and Manaol. The worst happened in Caraga, around 2,000 were either killed, or taken as captives. In Butuan alone 300 persons were herded to caracaos and joangas after the successful raid.

The old Butuan settlement occupied near or at the mouth of the Agusan Delta. It was in 1878, when the Jesuits transferred it to its present site due to yearly flooding. The new town site was an hour travel on rowboat.[79] 

Moros’ menace was not only to properties and persons, but it as well was centered in shipping. Two incidents happened in Palawan,[80] the galera Santa Rita was captured there. During the attack of galera Santiago while on patrol from Zamboanga along the coast, thirty-three enemy boats surrounded it, and the Spanish galera Santa Rita was even used as the Moro command ship.

Another ship, the San Ignacio was likewise captured in Palawan, the raiders had boarded it already; however, the ship’s Captain Francisco Rodriguez y Figueroa intentionally set the ship on fire, where the arsenal was kept. A few minutes thereafter, it exploded killing the gallant Captain and all his fifty-two crew, as well as the Moros who were already inside. His gallantry was recognized by the colonial government, his surviving wife was taken cared by funds from the Royal Treasury for long as she lives.

Beginning 1754 and up to more than a decade after the British left Manila, was the saddest annals in the struggle for survival of the native Christians Indios against piracy and slavery. Such was the reality, Moro raids happened though intermittently until the late decade of the 20^th century.

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NOTES

[1] From the works of A Franzen & JP Dolan, History of the Church; J Rosenthal, The Crusades, Encarta; and  ST Keating, What Catholics Should Know About Islam.

[2] Based on the Map provided by August Franzen and John P. Dolan, “The Roman Empire at its greatest extent – AD 180.”

[3] Polytheism is the worship of many gods. Before Christianity existed, Judaism was or still is a major religion of the Jews even today. Although Judaism is monotheism, it is distinct from Christianity. After the Ascension of Christ, Frazen and Dolan say “At first the young community (Christian) still regarded itself as the fulfillment of Judaism, participated in Jewish worship0, lived with the traditional Jewish forms of piety, and adopted the basic principles of Jewish organization. . . Although the Jerusalem community participated in the Jewish cult and strictly observed Jewish law, and therefore at first appeared to be a Jewish sect, almost immediately a parting of ways was necessary, because the typically Christian traits of the community brought the followers of Jesus into insurmountable opposition to the synagogue. Christian baptism; prayer, which was directed to Christ as the Kyros (God); the celebration of the Eucharist; and the exclusive Christian community of love which went as far as the surrender of private property to the community of the faithful  (Acts 2, 44ff) called forth the suspicion, the rejection, and finally the hostility of the Jews.” (Franzen & Dolan: History of the Church, pp. 13-14) ___  In short, Christian has a different form of worship; they believed in the divinity of Christ while Judaism does not.  (Annotation mine)

[4] Ibid.

[5] Paul after his conversion to Christianity in year 33, moved into the Arabian Desert for three years to prepare himself for his first missionary journey in year 45-48 in Cyprus and Asia Minor (Pega, Antioch in Pisidia, Econium, Lystra, and Derbe. Second Journey:  Year 49/50-52 to Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth; and Third Journey to Galatia and Phrygia, Ephesus, Greece, Troas, Miletus, Caesarea, and back to Jerusalem. Franzen & Dolan, History of the Church. p.16.

[6] Ibid.,  48

[7] Ibid. 50.

[8] Despite the edicts were decreed for the whole empire, the implementation varied in the four regions. The West under Augustus Maximian and the Caesar Constantius Chlorus did not strictly followed the decree, in fact in 305 persecution completely stopped in the West. But for the East Empire, persecutions continued until 313 under Augustus Galerius. __ See A. Franen & J. Dolan. A History of the Church, p. 54.

[9] Ibid., 53.

[10] Constantine was the son of Constantius Chlorus and Helena (St. Helena) was born in Nish Serbia and raised in the court of Emperor Diocletian (284-305). When Diocletian abdicated his crown in 305, the Roman Army loved Constantine and expected much that he would be named as the next Caesar; nevertheless, he was not, but instead Galerius was made as the First Augustus or Caesar. It had created much ill for Constantine, so he fled from Nicomedia (imperial residence) and went to his father in Gaul. _ See Franzen and Dolan, History of the Church, p. 57.

[11] A. Franzen & J.P. Dolan. A History of the Church, pp. 58-59.

[12] Ibid., 60.

[13] Ibid., 68.

[14] For further readings see A. Franzen & JP Dolan,. A History of the Church, Palm Publishers, 14949-55^th Avenue, Dorvalo-Montreal, pp. 38-43, 68-71.

[15] Ibid., 58, 68.

[16] Ibid., 68.

[17] Ibid., 60.

[18] Ibid., 63.

[19] Ibid., 65.

[20] Emperor Constantine in 313 he gave the Pope the Lateran Palace and began the construction of the Basilica Constantina in Rome. Sometime in 320, he founded the Church of St. Peter over the tomb of Peter (Basilica of St. Peter today) on the Vatican Hill. Ibid., 59.

[21] Ibid. 116.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Ibid..

[24] Ibid., 117.

[25] Ibid., 117-120.

[26] He was the son of Pippin (Frankish King in 741-768, who too was a Christian.)  He married the daughter of Desiderius, the Lombard King\. However, their marriage did not last long, and it started again the hostilities between the Lombards and the Franks, where the latter was defeated in the battle of Pavia (Lombard capital north of Italy in Easter of 774. See Franzen & Dolan, A History of the Church, pp. 142-143.

[27]  Charlemagne was busy on military campaigns against the Slavs in 789, 791, and 795. In 797 his campaign was against the Avars; in 805-806 against the Bohemians; and in 808-811 against the Danes. Before these campaigns, he was in Spain in 778 fighting against the Arabs and regained Northern Spain from them. See Franzen & Dolan, A History of the Church pp. 143-144.

[28] Joel Rosenthal, The Crusades, Encarta __ Constantine the Great was regarded as the first Christian Emperor who extended the Roman Empire from West to East. He re-founded Byzantium and named it Constantinople.

[29] August Franzen & John P. Dolan, A History of the Church, 139.

[30] Ibid., 193.

[31] Ibid. 193-194.

[32] Joel Rosenthal, The Crusades, Encarta.

[33] A. Franzen & J.P. Dolan, History of the Church, 193-194.

[34] Ibid., 194

[35] Ibid., 195.

[36] S.T. Keating, What Catholics Should Know About Islam, 30-31.

[37] Jose Rizal’s annotation, Successos de las Islas Filipinas. See Hume’s Spain 210-213.

[38] Fr. MA Bernad, S.J , The Great Island, 103.

[39] Spanish coming to the Philippines to colonize it was in a mandate of the Patronata Real, which the Pope issued in a papal bull, that Spanish rule in the Philippines was justified to spread Christianity. They arrived in 1521 so to speak, but definitely in 1565 when Legazpi successfully colonized Cebu. On the other hand, with similar purpose according to the Maguindanao Traditions, Islam reached the Philippines in 1480. A Muslim preacher or trader from Johore, Malay Peninsula, with an alleged name as Sharif Mohammad Kabungsuwan arrived and sailed at the mouth of Pulangi River in Cotabato. He married the daughter of Malangsa-Inged Sharif. The latter was the first Muslim Ruler of Buwayan. Muslim political structure was more advance that the Sultanate of Maguindanao covers all parts of southern Mindanao, from Point Tuguban as far as to the East of Mati; westward towards Zamboanga City; and northwest or northward up to the outer edges of Dapitan. Thus, all the tribes of Davao Gulf and the islands along todays Sarangani pay tributes to the Sultanate.  See Fr, Francisco Demetrio, SJ, Historical Glimpses of Northern, edited and published Fr. Francis C. Madigan, SJ writings, “Early History of Cagayan de Oro”, pp. 2-3. For further readings see Nejeeb M. Saleeby, Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion, (Manila, Bureau of Printing 1908.)

[40] Dr. Antonio Morga, History of the Philippine Islands, Vol. 1-2.

[41] It was the central legislative body in colonial Philippines, with the Governor General setting as President of the Royal Audiencia. Annotation mine.

[42] Esteban Figueroa died in the battle too. He disembarked from his command ship, and in the swampy areas of the Rio Grande Delta, he was

hacked from behind and died a day later.

[43] Fr. Juan del Campo, S.J. (165-196), was a pioneer missionary to Leyte, but summoned as a chaplain of the Spanish Expedition led by Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa against Maguindanaos in 1596. Fr. J.S. Arcilla, S.J. Jesuit Missionary Letters from Mindanao, Vol. 1: 176.

[44]  Fr. M.A. Bernad, S.J., The Great Island, 69.  See Vicente Barrantes, Gueras piraticas de Filipinas contra mindanaos y joloanos.

[45]  Fr. S.B. Bevans, SVD and R.P. Schroeder, SVD. Constants in Context: A Theology of Mission for Today, 172-173.

[46] Ibid.

[47] Andrea Furtado de Mendoza began his military career at the age of sixteen, when he accompanied King Sebastian on his ill-fated expedition to Morocco. A year or two later he went to India and became famous byo his relief of Barcelor. He had charge of many arduous posts and achieved many military and naval successes. He opposed the Dutch attempt to colonize Matelief in Malacca. In 1609, he was elected as the thirty-seventh Portuguese governor of India, and filed the office with great credit to himself and country. Blair & Robertson’s annotation. See Voyage of Poyrad de Laval, Hakluyt Society ed., London, 1888, Part I, Vol. II, 267 Note 3.

[48] The Governor General was Don Pedro de Acuna.

[49] Visayas Islands excluding Zebu or Cebu.

[50] Jose Rizal’s annotation, Sucessos de las Islas Filipinas: According to Argensola, the expeditionary forces composed of Spaniards and their officers, 1, 423 men; Pampangos and Tagalogs [without their chiefs], 344; maritime and military service, 620 men; rowers,  649; and native chiefs, 5; a total of 3,041 men. But it numbered to 3,095 men excluding the de Acuna’s household or personal aides. Perhaps the Portuguese under Pedro Alvares de Abreu and Camelo numbered to 54 men. The Indian Chiefs were Don Guillermo [Palaot] Master of Camp; and as Captains were Don Francisco Palaot, Don Juan Lit, Don Luis Lont, and Don Agustin Lont. The battle must have been very bloody, “Not a person of consideration among the Spaniards or the Indians remained unwounded”, said Argensola.

[51] Founded by Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñalosa in 1581. He was a native of Arevalo, thus the newly founded town in Panay was named after the latter’s birthplace. See Blair & Robertson, the Philippine Islands, Vol. XVII, pp. 285-289.

[52] From the manuscripts of the Ventura del Arco, (Ayer Library), Blair & Robertson’s English Translation say, “During that year (Events in the Filipinas Islands from August 1627 until June 1628 written and unsigned obviously by Jesuit Priest in Relation of July in 1628), the old King of Ternate died at Manila. He had been captured at the recovery of Malucas. He was a Moro, of royal appearance and speech; and died in the Moro belief, of which he had always been most observant. He thoroughly understood the teachings of our Holy Faith, and said that the only reason that he did not embrace it was because it was not fitting for a king to change his religion because he had been captured.” See Blair & Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898: Explorations by Early Navigators, Vol. XXII, 1625-1629, Ebook.

[53] Emma Blair & James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898: Exploration by Early Navigators, Vol. XXII, Ebook.

[54] Don Fernando de Silva acted as Governor General because the proprietary Governor and Captain-General Don Juan Nino de Tavora did not arrive yet to assume his office. Annotation mine. 

[55]  Under the command of Cristoval de Lugo.

[56] On the western coast of Samar, the provincial capital of Western Samar is located. During the raid, it was under the charge of the Jesuits.  Annotation mine.

[57] Blair & Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vol. 17 pp. 285-289.

[58] The Chinese had long been here in the Philippines before the Spaniards came, engaging already in trade with the Indios and the Muslims, alike. An alcaiceria is a place, where they lived and had their business. According to one writer, Gavin Menzies in his book entitled “1421 America Discovered by China”, the anthropological excavations in the Colorado Canyon and even in the Amazon Basin in South America, there are direct evidences leading to the fact that the Chinese were first in the Americas than Columbus in 1492. The presence of Chinese artifacts such as porcelains jars, plates and so on dating back at the time of the Ming dynasty in China in the 15^th century were discovered. His voluminous research works for ten years on old Chinese navigational maps, documents, etc. made him finally write the book, which is not just based by conjectures.  Annotation mine.

[59] Old Spanish seaport in Panay.

[60] Governor General of the Philippines in 1635-1644.

[61] Fr. J.S. Arcilla, S.J. Jesuit Missionary Letters from Mindanao, Vol. II: Rio Grande Mission, 176.

[62] Fr. J.S. Arcilla, S.J. Jesuit Missionary Letters from Mindanao, Vol. IV: The Dapitan and Balingasag Mission, 253. See Francisco Combes, S.J. Historica de Mindanao y Jolo, Wenceslao E. Retana & Pablo Pastells, S.J. ed. Book VI Chap. II.

[63] Ibid., 490.

[64] Literature from Fr. Miguel A. Bernad, S.J. The Great Island.

[65] Fr. J.S. Arcilla, S.J. Jesuit Missionary Letters from Mindanao, Vol. IV: Dapitan-Balingasag Mission, 378.

[66] The rank of Field Marshal [“Malesacampo” the corrupted word], was bestowed to Datu Binuni. He had shown uncommon valor during the battles in July-August 1754. It says, during the naval skirmishes against the Moros while Fr. Jose Ducos, S.J. was sailing in a boat, which Binuni also boarded, the latter killed ninety-three Moros. See Fr. J.S. Arcilla, S.J. Jesuit Missionary Letters, Vol. IV.

[67] From Fr. M.A. Bernad, S.J. The Great Island.

[68] Natives of Pampanga.

[69] The old Catholic church of Lubungan or Katipunan, which now is in ruins or practically nowhere could be found was once located in Barangay San Antonio, a few distance away from the present poblacion. Barangay San Antonio as described is located between two rivers, on the north is Punta Dipolog while opposite it, is the big Decayo River. If old Lubungan town center in 1762 is described this way, then certainly Barangay San Antonio was the former poblacion or town center of Lubungan. The present Lubungan or Katipunan Catholic Church is near the seashore, but there is no upriver going towards it. Barangay San Antonio fits the description of scholars, the fact that traditions say an old church was once in the barangay, which had long been erased in the face the earth, but not in the memories of the old residents of Lubungan.  [Annotation mine.]

[70] Author of fourteen volumes, Historia General de Philipinas, published in 1792. He was a Recollect priest.

[71] Calamian Group or Calamianes, is located in western Philippines, part of Palawan province, in the South China Sea. They extend to a southwesterly direction toward Palawan Island from Mindoro Island, from which they are separated by Mindoro Strait. Busuanga, Culion, Coron, and Linapacan are the most important of the ninety-eight (98) islands constituting the group.  See Encarta.

[72] Fr. Jose Ducos, S.J., was born in Barcelona, Spain. He entered the Society of Jesus on 25 July 1739, and ordained as priest ten years later in Nueva Espana. His father was a Colonel in the Spanish Army. From Iligan, Fr. Ducos was assigned to Oton in Iloilo, where he died on 5 November 1760, at an early age of thirty-six. It is believed that his death was attributed due to the hardships of missionary life more so that he was greatly involved in the furious wars against the Moros in Iligan and the Pangil Bay areas, where he was wounded seriously in one of the bloody encounters. 

[73] He was the Expedition Commander to Visayas and Mindanao in November 1753. This expedition did not reach its objectives, somewhere in Mindoro; one galera sank drowning twenty-one soldiers. Another vessel also sank and most of the fleets lost their masts; fortunately the subsequent events no lives were lost.  He returned to Cavite, accomplishing nothing, but only to bring the survivors of that ill-fated expedition. See Fr. M.A. Bernad, SJ. The Great Island, 74.

[74] About three to four kilometers.

[75] A river in Linamon, Lanao del Norte.

[76] Official title in Spanish, Fuerte de la Concepcion y del Triunfo. The fort is nearby the Port of Ozamis located to the East.

[77] In Mindanao during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, conflict arose between the Ilagas and Barracudas-Blackshirts. How it started, until today it seems obscure to know the circumstantial causes leading to the war. In either way, partly maybe it was political, as it may involve some advocacy on cessationism; or on one point being economic, arising from disputes of lands (ownership, boundaries, etc.). Nevertheless, it was not a religious one, just as it was not during the Hispano-Moro Wars, either.  Annotation mine.

[78] On September 3, 1762, the British under Brigadier General Draper and Admiral Cornish invaded Manila which marked the British Occupation of Manila from 1762-1764, following the Spanish and English Seven Years War. __ See Historic Manila, Commemorative Lectures, “The American Occupation of Manila”  by Rosario Mendoza-Cortes, Ph.D.., pp. 71-72. See Rojo’s Journal, Ibid, XLIX, and “Anda & the English Invasion” Ibid. 132175.

[79] Fr. Ramon Pamies was the Jesuit Missionary who initiated the transfer of the Butuan Settlement to its present site. See Fr. J.S. Arcilla, S.J. Jesuit Missionary Letters from, Vol IV: The Dapitan-Balingasag Mission.

                                     

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